Titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791 and named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The element occurs within a number of mineral deposits, principally rutile and ilmenite, which are widely distributed in the Earth’s crust and lithosphere, and it is found in almost all living things, rocks, water bodies, and soilsSony VAIO VPCF137HG/BI battery.[2] The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores via the Kroll process[3] or the Hunter process. Its most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments.[4] Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), a component of smoke screens and catalysts; and titanium trichloride (TiCl3), which is used as a catalyst in the production of polypropyleneSony VAIO VPCF136FG/BI battery.[2]

Titanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, vanadium, molybdenum, among other elements, to produce strong lightweight alloys for aerospace (jet engines, missiles, and spacecraft), military, industrial process (chemicals and petro-chemicals, desalination plants, pulp, and paper), automotive, agri-food, medical prostheses, orthopedic implants, dental and endodontic instruments and filesSony VAIO VPCF135FG/B battery, dental implants, sporting goods, jewelry, mobile phones, and other applications.[2]

The two most useful properties of the metal form are corrosion resistance and the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any metal.[5] In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, but 45% lighter.[6] There are two allotropic forms[7] and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant (73.8%).Sony VAIO VPCF127HG/BI battery Titanium’s properties are chemically and physically similar to zirconium, because both of them have the same number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table.

Characteristics

[edit]Physical properties

A metallic element, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio.[7] It is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile (especially in an oxygen-free environment),[2] lustrous, and metallic-white in color.[9] The relatively high melting point (more than 1,650 °C or 3,000 °F) makes it useful as a refractory metal. It is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity. Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E battery

Commercial (99.2% pure) grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 63,000 psi (434 MPa), equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, but are 45% lighter.[6] Titanium is 60% more dense than aluminium, but more than twice as strong[6] as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys (e.g., Beta C) achieve tensile strengths of over 200,000 psi (1,400 MPa). Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E battery However, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C (806 °F).[11]

It is fairly hard (although not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel), non-magnetic and a poor conductor of heat and electricity. Machining requires precautions, as the material will soften and gall if sharp tools and proper cooling methods are not used. Like those made from steel, titanium structures have a fatigue limit which guarantees longevity in some applicationsSony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H battery.[9] Titanium alloys specific stiffnesses are also usually not as good as other materials such as aluminium alloys and carbon fiber, so it is used less for structures which require high rigidity.

The metal is a dimorphic allotrope whose hexagonal alpha form changes into a body-centered cubic (lattice) ? form at 882 °C (1,620 °F).[11] The specific heat of the alpha form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls and remains fairly constant for the ? form regardless of temperatureSony VAIO VPCF11M1E battery.[11] Similar to zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but is metastable at ambient pressures. This phase is usually hexagonal (ideal) or trigonal (distorted) and can be viewed as being due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the ? phase causing collapse of (111) planes of atoms.[12]

[edit]Chemical properties

The Pourbaix diagram for titanium in pure water, perchloric acid or sodium hydroxideSony VAIO VPCF11JFX/B battery

The most noted chemical property of titanium is its excellent resistance to corrosion; it is almost as resistant as platinum, capable of withstanding attack by dilute sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid as well as chlorine gas, chloride solutions, and most organic acids.[3] However, it is soluble in concentrated acids.[14] The Pourbaix diagram in the image shows that titanium is actually thermodynamically a very reactive metalSony VAIO VPCF119FJ battery.

However, it is slow to react with water and air, because it forms a passive and protective oxide coating that protects it from further reaction.[2] When it first forms, this protective layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to slowly grow; reaching a thickness of 25 nm in four years.[15]

Titanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) in air, and at 610 °C (1,130 °F) in pure oxygen, forming titanium dioxideSony VAIO VPCF119FC/BI battery.[7] As a result, the metal cannot be melted in open air since it burns before the melting point is reached. Melting is only possible in an inert atmosphere or in a vacuum. At 550 °C (1,022 °F), it combines with chlorine.[3] It also reacts with the other halogens and absorbs hydrogen.[4]

Titanium is one of the few elements that burns in pure nitrogen gas, reacting at 800 °C (1,470 °F) to form titanium nitride, which causes embrittlementSony VAIO VPCF119FC battery.[16]

Experiments have shown that natural titanium becomes radioactive after it is bombarded with deuterons, emitting mainly positrons and hard gamma rays.[3]

[edit]Compounds

See also categories: Titanium compounds and Titanium minerals

TiN coated drill bit

The +4 oxidation state dominates titanium chemistry,[17] but compounds in the +3 oxidation state are also common.[18] Because of this high oxidation state, many titanium compounds have a high degree of covalent bondingSony VAIO VPCF117HG/BI battery.

Star sapphires and rubies get their asterism from the titanium dioxide impurities present in them.[15] Titanates are compounds made with titanium dioxide. Barium titanate has piezoelectric properties, thus making it possible to use it as a transducer in the interconversion of sound and electricity.[7] Esters of titanium are formed by the reaction of alcohols and titanium tetrachloride and are used to waterproof fabrics. Sony VAIO VPCF116FG/BI battery

Titanium nitride (TiN), having a hardness equivalent to sapphire and carborundum (9.0 on the Mohs Scale),[19] is often used to coat cutting tools, such as drill bits.[20] It also finds use as a gold-colored decorative finish, and as a barrier metal in semiconductor fabrication.[21]

Titanium tetrachloride (titanium(IV) chloride, TiCl4, sometimes called “tickle”[22]) is a colorless liquid which is used as an intermediate in the manufacture of titanium dioxide for paintSony VAIO VPCF115FG/B battery.[23] It is widely used in organic chemistry as a Lewis acid, for example in the Mukaiyama aldol condensation.[24] Titanium also forms a lower chloride, titanium(III) chloride (TiCl3), which is used as a reducing agent.[25]

Titanocene dichloride is an important catalyst for carbon-carbon bond formation. Titanium isopropoxide is used for Sharpless epoxidation. Other compounds include titanium bromide (used in metallurgy, superalloys, and high-temperature electrical wiring and coatings) and titanium carbide (found in high-temperature cutting tools and coatings) Sony VAIO VPCF21ZHJ battery.[4]

[edit]Occurrence

Titanium is always bonded to other elements in nature. It is the ninth-most abundant element in the Earth’s crust (0.63% by mass)[27] and the seventh-most abundant metal. It is present in most igneous rocks and in sediments derived from them (as well as in living things and natural bodies of water).[2][3] Of the 801 types of igneous rocks analyzed by the United States Geological Survey, 784 contained titaniumSony VAIO VPCF21Z1E/BI battery.[27] Its proportion in soils is approximately 0.5 to 1.5%.[27]

It is widely distributed and occurs primarily in the minerals anatase, brookite, ilmenite, perovskite, rutile, titanite (sphene), as well in many iron ores.[15] Of these minerals, only rutile and ilmenite have any economic importance, yet even they are difficult to find in high concentrations. Significant titanium-bearing ilmenite deposits exist in western AustraliaSony VAIO VPCF21AHJ battery, Canada, China, India, Mozambique, New Zealand, Norway, and Ukraine.[15] Large quantities of rutile are also mined in North America and South Africa and help contribute to the annual production of 90,000 tonnes of the metal and 4.3 million tonnes of titanium dioxide.[15] Total reserves of titanium are estimated to exceed 600 million tonnesSony VAIO VPCF21AGJ battery.[15]

Titanium is contained in meteorites and has been detected in the sun and in M-type stars;[3] the coolest type of star with a surface temperature of 3,200 °C (5,790 °F).[28] Rocks brought back from the moon during the Apollo 17 mission are composed of 12.1% TiO2.[3] It is also found in coal ash, plants, and even the human bodySony VAIO VPCF21AFJ battery.

[edit]Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of titanium

Naturally occurring titanium is composed of 5 stable isotopes: 46Ti, 47Ti, 48Ti, 49Ti, and 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant (73.8% natural abundance). Eleven radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being 44Ti with a half-life of 63 years, 45Ti with a half-life of 184.8 minutes, 51Ti with a half-life of 5.76 minutes, and 52Ti with a half-life of 1.7 minutesSony VAIO VPCF219FJ/BI battery. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 33 seconds and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than half a second.[8]

The isotopes of titanium range in atomic weight from 39.99 u (40Ti) to 57.966 u (58Ti). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 48Ti, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay products before 48Ti are element 21 (scandium) isotopes and the primary products after are element 23 (vanadium) isotopesSony VAIO VPCF217HG/BI battery.[8]

[edit]History

Martin Heinrich Klaproth named titanium for the Titans of Greek mythology.

Titanium was discovered included in a mineral in Cornwall, United Kingdom, in 1791 by amateur geologist and pastor William Gregor, then vicar of Creed parish.[29] He recognized the presence of a new element in ilmenite[4] when he found black sand by a stream in the nearby parish of Manaccan and noticed the sand was attracted by a magnetSony VAIO VPCF217HG battery.[29] Analysis of the sand determined the presence of two metal oxides; iron oxide (explaining the attraction to the magnet) and 45.25% of a white metallic oxide he could not identify.[27] Gregor, realizing that the unidentified oxide contained a metal that did not match the properties of any known element, reported his findings to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall and in the German science journal Crell’s AnnalenSony VAIO VPCF14ZHJ battery.[29]

Around the same time, Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein produced a similar substance, but could not identify it.[4] The oxide was independently rediscovered in 1795 by German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in rutile from Hungary.[29] Klaproth found that it contained a new element and named it for the Titans of Greek mythology.[28] After hearing about Gregor’s earlier discovery, he obtained a sample of manaccanite and confirmed it contained titaniumSony VAIO VPCF14AHJ battery.

The processes required to extract titanium from its various ores are laborious and costly; it is not possible to reduce in the normal manner, by heating in the presence of carbon, because that produces titanium carbide.[29] Pure metallic titanium (99.9%) was first prepared in 1910 by Matthew A. Hunter at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute by heating TiCl4 with sodium at 700–800 °C in the Hunter processSony VAIO VPCF14AGJ battery.[3] Titanium metal was not used outside the laboratory until 1932 when William Justin Kroll proved that it could be produced by reducing titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) with calcium.[30] Eight years later he refined this process by using magnesium and even sodium in what became known as the Kroll process.[30] Although research continues into more efficient and cheaper processes (e.g., FFC Cambridge), the Kroll process is still used for commercial productionSony VAIO VPCF14AFJ battery.

Titanium sponge, made by the Kroll process

Titanium of very high purity was made in small quantities when Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer discovered the iodide, or crystal bar, process in 1925, by reacting with iodine and decomposing the formed vapors over a hot filament to pure metal.[31]

In the 1950s and 1960s the Soviet Union pioneered the use of titanium in military and submarine applications (Alfa Class and Mike Class)[32] as part of programs related to the Cold WarSony VAIO VPCF149FJ/BI battery.[33] Starting in the early 1950s, titanium began to be used extensively for military aviation purposes, particularly in high-performance jets, starting with aircraft such as the F100 Super Sabre and Lockheed A-12.

In the USA, the Department of Defense realized the strategic importance of the metal[34] and supported early efforts of commercialization.[35] Throughout the period of the Cold War, titanium was considered a Strategic Material by the U.S. governmentSony VAIO VPCF148FJ/B battery, and a large stockpile of titanium sponge was maintained by the Defense National Stockpile Center, which was finally depleted in 2005.[36] Today, the world’s largest producer, Russian-based VSMPO-Avisma, is estimated to account for about 29% of the world market share.[37]

In 2006, the U.S. Defense Agency awarded $5.7 million to a two-company consortium to develop a new process for making titanium metal powder. Under heat and pressure, the powder can be used to create strong, lightweight items ranging from armor plating to components for the aerospace, transport, and chemical processing industries. Sony VAIO VPCF13ZHJ battery

Production and fabrication

Titanium (mineral concentrate)

The processing of titanium metal occurs in 4 major steps:[39] reduction of titanium ore into “sponge”, a porous form; melting of sponge, or sponge plus a master alloy to form an ingot; primary fabrication, where an ingot is converted into general mill products such as billet, bar, plate, sheet, strip, and tube; and secondary fabrication of finished shapes from mill productsSony VAIO VPCF13Z0E/B battery.

Because the metal reacts with oxygen at high temperatures it cannot be produced by reduction of its dioxide.[9] Titanium metal is therefore produced commercially by the Kroll process, a complex and expensive batch process. (The relatively high market value of titanium is mainly due to its processing, which sacrifices another expensive metal, magnesiumSony VAIO VPCF13M8E/B battery.[40]) In the Kroll process, the oxide is first converted to chloride through carbochlorination, whereby chlorine gas is passed over red-hot rutile or ilmenite in the presence of carbon to make TiCl4. This is condensed and purified by fractional distillation and then reduced with 800 °C molten magnesium in an argon atmosphere.[7]

A more recently developed method, the FFC Cambridge process,[41] may eventually replace the Kroll processSony VAIO VPCF13AHJ battery. This method uses titanium dioxide powder (which is a refined form of rutile) as feedstock to make the end product which is either a powder or sponge. If mixed oxide powders are used, the product is an alloy manufactured at a much lower cost than the conventional multi-step melting process. The FFC Cambridge process may render titanium a less rare and expensive material for the aerospace industry and the luxury goods marketSony VAIO VPCF13AGJ battery, and could be seen in many products currently manufactured using aluminium and specialist grades of steel.

Common titanium alloys are made by reduction. For example, cuprotitanium (rutile with copper added is reduced), ferrocarbon titanium (ilmenite reduced with coke in an electric furnace), and manganotitanium (rutile with manganese or manganese oxides) are reduced.[42]

2 FeTiO3 + 7 Cl2 + 6 C ? 2 TiCl4 + 2 FeCl3 + 6 CO (900 °C)

TiCl4 + 2 Mg ? 2 MgCl2 + Ti (1100 °C) Sony VAIO VPCF13AFJ battery

About 50 grades of titanium and titanium alloys are designated and currently used, although only a couple of dozen are readily available commercially.[43] The ASTM International recognizes 31 Grades of titanium metal and alloys, of which Grades 1 through 4 are commercially pure (unalloyed). These four are distinguished by their varying degrees of tensile strengthSony VAIO VPCF138FJ/BI battery, as a function of oxygen content, with Grade 1 being the most ductile (lowest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.18%), and Grade 4 the least (highest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.40%).[15] The remaining grades are alloys, each designed for specific purposes, be it ductility, strength, hardness, electrical resistivity, creep resistance, resistance to corrosion from specific media, or a combination thereofSony VAIO VPCF138FJ/B battery.[44]

The grades covered by ASTM and other alloys are also produced to meet Aerospace and Military specifications (SAE-AMS, MIL-T), ISO standards, and country-specific specifications, as well as proprietary end-user specifications for aerospace, military, medical, and industrial applications. Sony VAIO VPCF138FC/BI battery

In terms of fabrication, all welding of titanium must be done in an inert atmosphere of argon or helium in order to shield it from contamination with atmospheric gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, or hydrogen.[11] Contamination will cause a variety of conditions, such as embrittlement, which will reduce the integrity of the assembly welds and lead to joint failureSony VAIO VPCF135FG battery. Commercially pure flat product (sheet, plate) can be formed readily, but processing must take into account the fact that the metal has a “memory” and tends to spring back. This is especially true of certain high-strength alloys.[46][47] Titanium cannot be soldered without first pre-plating it in a metal that is solderable.[48] The metal can be machined using the same equipment and via the same processes as stainless steelSony VAIO VPCF12AHJ battery.[11]

[edit]Applications

A titanium cylinder, “Grade 2″ quality

Titanium is used in steel as an alloying element (ferro-titanium) to reduce grain size and as a deoxidizer, and in stainless steel to reduce carbon content.[2] Titanium is often alloyed with aluminium (to refine grain size), vanadium, copper (to harden), iron, manganese, molybdenum, and with other metals.[49] Applications for titanium mill products (sheet, plate, bar, wire, forgings, castings) can be found in industrial, aerospace, recreational, and emerging marketsSony VAIO VPCF12AGJ battery. Powdered titanium is used in pyrotechnics as a source of bright-burning particles.

Pigments, additives and coatings

Titanium dioxide is the most commonly used compound of titanium

About 95% of titanium ore extracted from the Earth is destined for refinement into titanium dioxide (TiO2), an intensely white permanent pigment used in paints, paper, toothpaste, and plastics.[50] It is also used in cement, in gemstones, as an optical opacifier in paper,[51] and a strengthening agent in graphite composite fishing rods and golf clubsSony VAIO VPCF12AFJ battery.

TiO2 powder is chemically inert, resists fading in sunlight, and is very opaque: this allows it to impart a pure and brilliant white color to the brown or gray chemicals that form the majority of household plastics.[4] In nature, this compound is found in the minerals anatase, brookite, and rutile.[2] Paint made with titanium dioxide does well in severe temperaturesSony VAIO VPCF129FJ/BI battery, and stands up to marine environments.[4] Pure titanium dioxide has a very high index of refraction and an optical dispersion higher than diamond.[3] In addition to being a very important pigment, titanium dioxide is also used in sunscreens due to its ability to protect skin by itself.[9] Recently, titanium oxide has been put to use in air purifiers (as a filter coating), or in film used to coat windows on buildings so that when titanium oxide becomes exposed to UV lightSony VAIO VPCF128FJ/B battery (either solar or artificial) and moisture in the air, reactive redox species like hydroxyl radicals are produced so that they can purify the air or keep window surfaces clean.[52]

[edit]Aerospace and marine

Due to their high tensile strength to density ratio,[7] high corrosion resistance,[3] fatigue resistance, high crack resistance,[53] and ability to withstand moderately high temperatures without creeping, titanium alloys are used in aircraft, armor plating, naval ships, spacecraftSony VAIO VPCF127FJ/W battery, and missiles.[3][4] For these applications titanium alloyed with aluminium, vanadium, and other elements is used for a variety of components including critical structural parts, fire walls, landing gear, exhaust ducts (helicopters), and hydraulic systems. In fact, about two thirds of all titanium metal produced is used in aircraft engines and frames.[54] The SR-71 “Blackbird” was one of the first aircraft to make extensive use of titanium within its structureSony VAIO VPCF11ZHJ battery, paving the way for its use in modern military and commercial aircraft. An estimated 59 metric tons (130,000 pounds) are used in the Boeing 777, 45 in the Boeing 747, 18 in the Boeing 737, 32 in the Airbus A340, 18 in the Airbus A330, and 12 in the Airbus A320. The Airbus A380 may use 146 metric tons, including about 26 tons in the engines.[55] In engine applications, titanium is used for rotors, compressor blades, hydraulic system components, and nacellesSony VAIO VPCF11AHJ battery. The titanium 6AL-4V alloy accounts for almost 50% of all alloys used in aircraft applications.[56]

Due to its high corrosion resistance to sea water, titanium is used to make propeller shafts and rigging and in the heat exchangers of desalination plants;[3] in heater-chillers for salt water aquariums, fishing line and leader, and for divers’ knives. Titanium is used to manufacture the housings and other components of ocean-deployed surveillance and monitoring devices for scientific and military useSony VAIO VPCF11AGJ battery. The former Soviet Union developed techniques for making submarines largely out of titanium.[57]

[edit]Industrial

High-purity (99.999%) titanium with visible crystal structure

Welded titanium pipe and process equipment (heat exchangers, tanks, process vessels, valves) are used in the chemical and petrochemical industries primarily for corrosion resistance. Specific alloys are used in downhole and nickel hydrometallurgy applications due to their high strength (e. g.: titanium Beta C alloy), corrosion resistance, or combination of bothSony VAIO VPCF11AFJ battery. The pulp and paper industry uses titanium in process equipment exposed to corrosive media such as sodium hypochlorite or wet chlorine gas (in the bleachery).[58] Other applications include: ultrasonic welding, wave soldering,[59] and sputtering targets.[60]

Titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), a colorless liquid, is important as an intermediate in the process of making TiO2 and is also used to produce the Ziegler-Natta catalyst, and is used to iridize glass and because it fumes strongly in moist air it is also used to make smoke screensSony VAIO VPCF118FJ battery.[9]

[edit]Consumer and architectural

Titanium metal is used in automotive applications, particularly in automobile or motorcycle racing, where weight reduction is critical while maintaining high strength and rigidity.[61] The metal is generally too expensive to make it marketable to the general consumer market, other than high-end products, particularly for the racing/performance market. Late model Corvettes have been available with titanium exhaustsSony VAIO VPCF117FJ battery.[62]

Titanium is used in many sporting goods: tennis rackets, golf clubs, lacrosse stick shafts; cricket, hockey, lacrosse, and football helmet grills; and bicycle frames and components. Although not a mainstream material for bicycle production, titanium bikes have been used by race teams and adventure cyclists.[63] Titanium alloys are also used in spectacle framesSony VAIO VGN-CS33H battery.[64] This results in a rather expensive, but highly durable and long lasting frame which is light in weight and causes no skin allergies. Many backpackers use titanium equipment, including cookware, eating utensils, lanterns, and tent stakes.[64] Though slightly more expensive than traditional steel or aluminium alternatives, these titanium products can be significantly lighter without compromising strength. Titanium is also favored for use by farriers, since it is lighter and more durable than steel when formed into horseshoesSony VAIO VGN-CS33H/Z battery.[64]

Titanium has occasionally been used in architectural applications: the 40 m (131 foot) memorial to Yuri Gagarin, the first man to travel in space, in Moscow, is made of titanium for the metal’s attractive color and association with rocketry.[65] The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and the Cerritos Millennium Library were the first buildings in Europe and North AmericaSony VAIO VGN-CS33H/B battery, respectively, to be sheathed in titanium panels.[54] Other construction uses of titanium sheathing include the Frederic C. Hamilton Building in Denver, Colorado[66] and the 107 m (350 foot) Monument to the Conquerors of Space in Moscow.[67]

Because of its superior strength and light weight when compared to other metals traditionally used in firearms (steel, stainless steel, and aluminium), and advances in metalworking techniques, the use of titanium has become more widespread in the manufacture of firearmsSony VAIO VGN-CS31Z/Q battery. Primary uses include pistol frames and revolver cylinders. For these same reasons, it is also used in the body of laptop computers (for example, in Apple’s PowerBook line).[68]

Some upmarket categories of tools made to be lightweight and corrosion-resistant, such as shovels and flashlights, are made of titanium or titanium alloys as well.

[edit]Jewelry

Because of its durability, titanium has become more popular for designer jewelry (particularly, titanium rings).[64] Its inertness makes it a good choice for those with allergies or those who will be wearing the jewelry in environments such as swimming poolsSony VAIO VGN-CS31S/W battery. Titanium is also alloyed with gold to produce an alloy that can be marketed as 24-carat gold, as the 1% of alloyed Ti is insufficient to require a lesser mark. The resulting alloy is roughly the hardness of 14-carat gold and thus is more durable than a pure 24-carat gold item would be.[69]

Titanium’s durability, light weight, dent- and corrosion resistance makes it useful in the production of watch cases.[64] Some artists work with titanium to produce artworks such as sculptures, decorative objects and furnitureSony VAIO VGN-CS31S/V battery.[70]

The inertness and ability to be attractively colored makes titanium a popular metal for use in body piercing.[71] Titanium may be anodized to produce various colors, which varies the thickness of the surface oxide layer and causes interference fringes.[72]

[edit]Medical

Because it is biocompatible (non-toxic and is not rejected by the body), titanium is used in a gamut of medical applications including surgical implements and implants, such as hip balls and sockets (joint replacement) that can stay in place for up to 20 yearsSony VAIO VGN-CS31S/T battery.[29] The titanium is often alloyed with about 4% aluminium[73] or 6% Al and 4% vanadium.

Titanium has the inherent property to osseointegrate, enabling use in dental implants that can remain in place for over 30 years. This property is also useful for orthopedic implant applications.[29] These benefit from titanium’s lower modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) to more closely match that of the bone that such devices are intended to repairSony VAIO VGN-CS31S/R battery. As a result, skeletal loads are more evenly shared between bone and implant, leading to a lower incidence of bone degradation due to stress shielding and periprosthetic bone fractures which occur at the boundaries of orthopedic implants. However, titanium alloys’ stiffness is still more than twice that of bone so adjacent bone bears a greatly reduced load and may deteriorateSony VAIO VGN-CS31S/P battery.[74]

Since titanium is non-ferromagnetic, patients with titanium implants can be safely examined with magnetic resonance imaging (convenient for long-term implants). Preparing titanium for implantation in the body involves subjecting it to a high-temperature plasma arc which removes the surface atoms, exposing fresh titanium that is instantly oxidizedSony VAIO VGN-CS28 battery.[29]

Titanium is also used for the surgical instruments used in image-guided surgery, as well as wheelchairs, crutches, and any other products where high strength and low weight are desirable.

Precautions

Nettle contains up to 80 parts per million of titanium.

Titanium is non-toxic even in large doses and does not play any natural role inside the human body.[28] An estimated quantity of 0.8 milligrams of titanium is ingested by humans each day, but most passes through without being absorbedSony VAIO VGN-CS28/Q battery.[28] It does, however, have a tendency to bio-accumulate in tissues that contain silica. An unknown mechanism in plants may use titanium to stimulate the production of carbohydrates and encourage growth. This may explain why most plants contain about 1 part per million (ppm) of titanium, food plants have about 2 ppm, and horsetail and nettle contain up to 80 ppmSony VAIO VGN-CS27 battery.[28]

As a powder or in the form of metal shavings, titanium metal poses a significant fire hazard and, when heated in air, an explosion hazard.[75] Water and carbon dioxide–based methods to extinguish fires are ineffective on burning titanium; Class D dry powder fire fighting agents must be used insteadSony VAIO VGN-CS27/W battery.[4]

When used in the production or handling of chlorine, care must be taken to use titanium only in locations where it will not be exposed to dry chlorine gas which can result in a titanium/chlorine fire.[76] A fire hazard exists even when titanium is used in wet chlorine due to possible unexpected drying brought about by extreme weather conditionsSony VAIO VGN-CS27/R battery.

Titanium can catch fire when a fresh, non-oxidized surface comes in contact with liquid oxygen.[77] Such surfaces can appear when the oxidized surface is struck with a hard object, or when a mechanical strain causes the emergence of a crack. This poses the possible limitation for its use in liquid oxygen systems, such as those found in the aerospace industrySony VAIO VGN-CS27/P battery.

Chromium ( /?kro?mi?m/ kroh-mee-?m) is a chemical element which has the symbol Cr and atomic number 24. It is the first element in Group 6. It is a steely-gray, lustrous, hard metal that takes a high polish and has a high melting point. It is also odorless, tasteless, and malleable. The name of the element is derived from the Greek word “chr?ma” (?????) Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/C battery, meaning colour,[2] because many of its compounds are intensely coloured. Chromium oxide was used by the Chinese in the Qin dynasty over 2,000 years ago to coat weapons such as bronze crossbow bolts and steel swords found at the Terracotta Army. It later came to the attention of the West when it was discovered by Louis Nicolas Vauquelin in the mineral crocoite (lead(II) chromate) in 1797Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/W battery. Crocoite was used as a pigment, and after the discovery that the mineral chromite also contains chromium, this mineral was used to produce pigments as well.

Chromium was regarded with great interest because of its high corrosion resistance and hardness. A major development was the discovery that steel could be made highly resistant to corrosion and discoloration by adding chromium to form stainless steel. This application, along with chrome plating Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/V battery (electroplating with chromium) are currently the highest-volume uses of the metal. Chromium and ferrochromium are produced from the single commercially viable ore, chromite, by silicothermic or aluminothermic reaction or by roasting and leaching processes.

Although trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) is required in trace amounts for sugar and lipid metabolism, few cases have been reported where its complete removal from the diet has caused chromium deficiency. In larger amounts and in different forms, chromium can be toxic and carcinogenicSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/T battery. The most prominent example of toxic chromium is hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)). Abandoned chromium production sites often require environmental cleanup.

Characteristics

[edit]Physical

Chromium is remarkable for its magnetic properties: it is the only elemental solid which shows antiferromagnetic ordering at room temperature (and below). Above 38 °C, it transforms into a paramagnetic state.[1]

[edit]Passivation

Chromium metal left standing in air is passivated by oxygen, forming a thin protective oxide surface layer. This layer is a spinel structure only a few atoms thickSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/R battery. It is very dense, and prevents the diffusion of oxygen into the underlying material. This barrier is in contrast to iron or plain carbon steels, where the oxygen migrates into the underlying material and causes rusting.[3] The passivation can be enhanced by short contact with oxidizing acids like nitric acid. Passivated chromium is stable against acidsSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/Q battery. The opposite effect can be achieved by treatment with a strong reducing agent that destroys the protective oxide layer on the metal. Chromium metal treated in this way readily dissolves in weak acids.[4]

Chromium, unlike metals such as iron and nickel, does not suffer from hydrogen embrittlement. However, it does suffer from nitrogen embrittlement, reacting with nitrogen from air and forming brittle nitrides at the high temperatures necessary to work the metal partsSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/P battery.[5]

[edit]Occurrence

Crocoite (PbCrO4)

Chromite ore

Chromium is the 21st most abundant element in Earth’s crust with an average concentration of 100 ppm.[6] Chromium compounds are found in the environment, due to erosion of chromium-containing rocks and can be distributed by volcanic eruptions. The concentrations range in soil is between 1 and 3000 mg/kg, in sea water 5 to 800 µg/literSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/C battery, and in rivers and lakes 26 µg/liter to 5.2 mg/liter.[7] Chromium is mined as chromite (FeCr2O4) ore.[8] About two-fifths of the chromite ores and concentrates in the world are produced in South Africa, while Kazakhstan, India, Russia, and Turkey are also substantial producers. Untapped chromite deposits are plentiful, but geographically concentrated in Kazakhstan and southern AfricaSony VAIO VGN-CS25H battery.[9]

Although rare, deposits of native chromium exist.[10][11] The Udachnaya Pipe in Russia produces samples of the native metal. This mine is a kimberlite pipe, rich in diamonds, and the reducing environment helped produce both elemental chromium and diamond.[12]

The relation between Cr(III) and Cr(VI) strongly depends on pH and oxidative properties of the location, but in most cases, the Cr(III) is the dominating speciesSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/W battery,[7] although in some areas the ground water can contain up to 39 µg/liter of total chromium of which 30 µg/liter is present as Cr(VI).[13]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of chromium

Naturally occurring chromium is composed of three stable isotopes; 52Cr, 53Cr and 54Cr with 52Cr being the most abundant (83.789% natural abundance). 19 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 50Cr with a half-life of (more than) 1.8×1017 years, and 51Cr with a half-life of 27.7 daysSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/R battery. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 24 hours and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 1 minute. This element also has 2 meta states.[14]

53Cr is the radiogenic decay product of 53Mn. Chromium isotopic contents are typically combined with manganese isotopic contents and have found application in isotope geology. Mn-Cr isotope ratios reinforce the evidence from 26Al and 107Pd for the early history of the solar systemSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/Q battery. Variations in 53Cr/52Cr and Mn/Cr ratios from several meteorites indicate an initial 53Mn/55Mn ratio that suggests Mn-Cr isotopic composition must result from in-situ decay of 53Mn in differentiated planetary bodies. Hence 53Cr provides additional evidence for nucleosynthetic processes immediately before coalescence of the solar systemSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/P battery.[15]

The isotopes of chromium range in atomic mass from 43 u (43Cr) to 67 u (67Cr). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 52Cr, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay.[14] 53Cr has been posited as a proxy for atmospheric oxygen concentrationSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/C battery.[16]

[edit]Compounds

Chromium is a member of the transition metals, in group 6. Chromium(0) has an electronic configuration of 4s13d5, owing to the lower energy of the high spin configuration. Chromium exhibits a wide range of possible oxidation states, where the +3 state is most stable energetically; the +3 and +6 states are most commonly observed in chromium compounds, whereas the +1, +4 and +5 states are rareSony VAIO VGN-CS23T/W battery.[17]

The following is the Pourbaix diagram for chromium in pure water, perchloric acid or sodium hydroxide:[7][18]

Chromium(III)

Chromium(III) chloride hexahydrate ([CrCl2(H2O)4]Cl·2H2O)

Anhydrous chromium(III) chloride (CrCl3)

A large number of chromium(III) compounds are known. Chromium(III) can be obtained by dissolving elemental chromium in acids like hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid. The Cr3+ ion has a similar radius (63 pm) to the Al3+ ion (radius 50 pm), so they can replace each other in some compounds, such as in chrome alum and alum. When a trace amount of Cr3+ replaces Al3+ in corundum (aluminium oxide, Al2O3), the red-colored ruby is formedSony VAIO VGN-CS23T/Q battery.

Chromium(III) ions tend to form octahedral complexes. The colors of these complexes is determined by the ligands attached to the Cr centre. The commercially available chromium(III) chloride hydrate is the dark green complex [CrCl2(H2O)4]Cl. Closely related compounds have different colours: pale green [CrCl(H2O)5]Cl2 and the violet [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3Sony VAIO VGN-CS23H battery. If water-free green chromium(III) chloride is dissolved in water then the green solution turns violet after some time, due to the substitution of water by chloride in the inner coordination sphere. This kind of reaction is also observed with solutions of chrome alum and other water-soluble chromium(III) saltsSony VAIO VGN-CS23H/S battery.

Chromium(III) hydroxide (Cr(OH)3) is amphoteric, dissolving in acidic solutions to form [Cr(H2O)6]3+, and in basic solutions to form [Cr(OH)6]3?. It is dehydrated by heating to form the green chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3), which is the stable oxide with a crystal structure identical to that of corundumSony VAIO VGN-CS23H/B battery.[4]

[edit]Chromium(VI)

Chromium(VI) oxide

Chromium(VI) compounds are powerful oxidants at low or neutral pH. Most important are chromate anion (CrO2?

4) and dichromate (Cr2O72-) anions, which exist in equilibrium:

2 [CrO4]2- + 2 H+  [Cr2O7]2- + 2 H2O

Chromium(VI) halides are known also and include hexafluoride CrF6 and chromyl chloride (CrO2Cl2).[4]

Sodium chromate is produced industrially by the oxidative roasting of chromite ore with calcium or sodium carbonateSony VAIO VGN-CS23G battery. The dominant species is therefore, by the law of mass action, determined by the pH of the solution. The change in equilibrium is visible by a change from yellow (chromate) to orange (dichromate), such as when an acid is added to a neutral solution of potassium chromate. At yet lower pH values, further condensation to more complex oxyanions of chromium is possibleSony VAIO VGN-CS23G/W battery.

Both the chromate and dichromate anions are strong oxidizing reagents at low pH:[4]

Sodium chromate (Na2CrO4)

Cr2O2?

7 + 14 H3O+ + 6 e? ? 2 Cr3+ + 21 H2O (?0 = 1.33 V)

They are, however, only moderately oxidizing at high pH:[4]

CrO2?

4 + 4 H2O + 3 e? ? Cr(OH)3 + 5 OH? (?0 = ?0.13 V)

Chromium(VI) compounds in solution can be detected by adding an acidic hydrogen peroxide solution. The unstable dark blue chromium(VI) peroxide (CrO5) is formed, which can be stabilized as an ether adduct CrO5·OR2.[4]

Chromic acid has the hypothetical formula H2CrO4. It is a vaguely described chemical, despite many well-defined chromates and dichromates are known. The dark red chromium(VI) oxide CrO3, the acid anhydride of chromic acid, is sold industrially as “chromic acid”.Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G/Q battery It can be produced by mixing sulfuric acid with dichromate, and is a strong oxidizing agent.

[edit]Chromium(V) and chromium(IV)

The oxidation state +5 is only realized in few compounds but are intermediates in many reactions involving oxidations by chromate. The only binary compound is the volatile chromium(V) fluoride (CrF5). This red solid has a melting point of 30 °C and a boiling point of 117 °C. It can be synthesized by treating chromium metal with fluorine at 400 °C and 200 bar pressureSony VAIO VGN-CS23G/P battery. The peroxochromate(V) is another example of the +5 oxidation state. Potassium peroxochromate (K3[Cr(O2)4]) is made by reacting potassium chromate with hydrogen peroxide at low temperatures. This red brown compound is stable at room temperature but decomposes spontaneously at 150–170 °C.[19]

Compounds of chromium(IV) (in the +4 oxidation state) are slightly more common than those of chromium(V) Sony VAIO VGN-CS21Z/Q battery. The tetrahalides, CrF4, CrCl4, and CrBr4, can be produced by treating the trihalides (CrX3) with the corresponding halogen at elevated temperatures. Such compounds are susceptible to disproportionation reactions and are not stable in water.

[edit]Chromium(II) and chromium(I)

Many chromium(II) compounds are known, including the water-stable chromium(II) chloride, CrCl2, which can be made by reduction of chromium(III) chloride with zinc. The resulting bright blue solution is only stable at neutral pH.[4] Many chromous carboxylates are also known, most famously, the red chromous acetate (Cr2(O2CCH3)4), which features a quadruple bondSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/W battery.

[edit]Chromium(I)

Most Cr(I) compounds are obtained by oxidation of electron-rich, octahedral Cr(0) complexes. Other Cr(I) complexes contain cyclopentadienyl ligands. As verified by X-ray diffraction, a Cr-Cr quintuple bond (length 183.51(4)  pm) has also been described.[20] Extremely bulky monodentate ligands stabilize this compound by shielding the quintuple bond from further reactionsSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/V battery.

Chromium compound determined experimentally to contain a Cr-Cr quintuple bond

[edit]Chromium(0) and chromium(I)

Main article: organochromium chemistry

Many chromium(0) compounds are known. Most are derivatives of chromium hexacarbonyl or bis(benzene)chromium.

[edit]History

Weapons found in burial pits dating from the late 3rd century BC Qin Dynasty of the Terracotta Army near Xi’an, China have been analyzed by archaeologists. Although buried more than 2,000 years ago, the ancient bronze tips of crossbow bolts and swords found at the site showed no sign of corrosion, because the bronze was coated with chromiumSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/T battery.[21]

Chromium later came to the attention of westerners in the 18th century. On 26 July 1761, Johann Gottlob Lehmann found an orange-red mineral in the Beryozovskoye mines in the Ural Mountains which he named Siberian red lead. Though misidentified as a lead compound with selenium and iron components, the mineral was Crocoite (lead chromate) with a formula of PbCrO4Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/R battery.[22]

In 1770, Peter Simon Pallas visited the same site as Lehmann and found a red lead mineral that had useful properties as a pigment in paints. The use of Siberian red lead as a paint pigment developed rapidly. A bright yellow pigment made from crocoite also became fashionable.[22]

The red colour of rubies is from a small amount of chromium(III) Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/P battery.

In 1797, Louis Nicolas Vauquelin received samples of crocoite ore. He produced chromium trioxide (CrO3) by mixing crocoite with hydrochloric acid. In 1798, Vauquelin discovered that he could isolate metallic chromium by heating the oxide in a charcoal oven.[23] He was also able to detect traces of chromium in precious gemstones, such as ruby or emerald. Sony VAIO VGN-CS215J/R battery

During the 1800s, chromium was primarily used as a component of paints and in tanning salts. At first, crocoite from Russia was the main source, but in 1827, a larger chromite deposit was discovered near Baltimore, United States. This made the United States the largest producer of chromium products till 1848 when large deposits of chromite where found near Bursa, TurkeySony VAIO VGN-CS215J/Q battery.[8]

Chromium is also known for its luster when polished. It is used as a protective and decorative coating on car parts, plumbing fixtures, furniture parts and many other items, usually applied by electroplating. Chromium was used for electroplating as early as 1848, but this use only became widespread with the development of an improved process in 1924Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/W battery.[25]

Metal alloys now account for 85% of the use of chromium. The remainder is used in the chemical industry and refractory and foundry industries.

[edit]Production

Approximately 4.4 million metric tons of marketable chromite ore were produced in 2000, and converted into ~3.3 million tons of ferro-chrome with an approximate market value of 2.5 billion United States dollars.[26] The largest producers of chromium ore have been South Africa (44%) India (18%), Kazakhstan (16%) Zimbabwe (5%), Finland (4%) Iran (4%) and Brazil (2%) with several other countries producing the rest of less than 10% of the world productionSony VAIO VGN-CS19/R battery.[26]

The two main products of chromium ore refining are ferrochromium and metallic chromium. For those products the ore smelter process differs considerably. For the production of ferrochromium, the chromite ore (FeCr2O4) is reduced in large scale in electric arc furnace or in smaller smelters with either aluminium or silicon in an aluminothermic reactionSony VAIO VGN-CS19/Q battery.[27]

Chromium ore output in 2002[26]

For the production of pure chromium, the iron has to be separated from the chromium in a two step roasting and leaching process. The chromite ore is heated with a mixture of calcium carbonate and sodium carbonate in the presence of air. The chromium is oxidized to the hexavalent form, while the iron forms the stable Fe2O3Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/P battery. The subsequent leaching at higher elevated temperatures dissolves the chromates and leaves the insoluble iron oxide. The chromate is converted by sulfuric acid into the dichromate.[27]

4 FeCr2O4 + 8 Na2CO3 + 7 O2 ? 8 Na2CrO4 + 2 Fe2O3 + 8 CO2

2 Na2CrO4 + H2SO4 ? Na2Cr2O7 + Na2SO4 + H2O

The dichromate is converted to the chromium(III) oxide by reduction with carbon and then reduced in an aluminothermic reaction to chromium.[27]

Na2Cr2O7 + 2 C ? Cr2O3 + Na2CO3 + CO

Cr2O3 + 2 Al ? Al2O3 + 2 Cr

Applications

Metallurgy

Decorative chrome plating on a motorcycle.

The strengthening effect of forming stable metal carbides at the grain boundaries and the strong increase in corrosion resistance made chromium an important alloying material for steel. The high speed tool steels contain between 3 and 5% chromium. Stainless steelSony VAIO VGN-CS17H/W battery, the main corrosion-proof metal alloy, is formed when chromium is added to iron in sufficient concentrations, usually above 11%. For its formation, ferrochromium is added to the molten iron. Also nickel-based alloys increase in strength due to the formation of discrete, stable metal carbide particles at the grain boundaries. For example, Inconel 718 contains 18.6% chromiumSony VAIO VGN-CS17H/Q battery. Because of the excellent high temperature properties of these nickel superalloys, they are used in jet engines and gas turbines in lieu of common structural materials.[28]

The relative high hardness and corrosion resistance of unalloyed chromium makes it a good surface coating, being still the most “popular” metal coating with unparalleled combined durability. A thin layer of chromium is deposited on pretreated metallic surfaces by electroplating techniques. There are two deposition methods: Thin, below 1 µm thicknessSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/W battery, layers are deposited by chrome plating, and are used for decorative surfaces. If wear-resistant surfaces are needed then thicker chromium layers are deposited. Both methods normally use acidic chromate or dichromate solutions. To prevent the energy consuming change in oxidation state, the use of Chromium(III) sulfate is under development, but for most applications, the established process is usedSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/T battery.[25]

In the chromate conversion coating process, the strong oxidative properties of chromates are used to deposit a protective oxide layer on metals like aluminium, zinc and cadmium. This passivation and the self healing properties by the chromate stored in the chromate conversion coating, which is able to migrate to local defects, are the benefits of this coating methodSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/R battery.[29] Because of environmental and health regulations on chromates, alternative coating method are under development.[30]

Anodizing of aluminium is another electrochemical process, which does not lead to the deposition of chromium, but uses chromic acid as electrolyte in the solution. During anodization, an oxide layer is formed on the aluminium. The use of chromic acid, instead of the normally used sulfuric acid, leads to a slight difference of these oxide layersSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/Q battery.[31] The high toxicity of Cr(VI) compounds, used in the established chromium electroplating process, and the strengthening of safety and environmental regulations demand a search for substitutes for chromium or at least a change to less toxic chromium(III) compounds.[25]

[edit]Dye and pigment

School bus painted in chrome yellow[32]

The mineral crocoite (lead chromate PbCrO4) was used as a yellow pigment shortly after its discoverySony VAIO VGN-CS16T/P battery. After a synthesis method became available starting from the more abundant chromite, chrome yellow was, together with cadmium yellow, one of the most used yellow pigments. The pigment does not photo degrade but it tends to darken due to the formation of chromium(III) oxide. It has a strong color, and was used for school buses in the US and for Postal Service (for example Deutsche Post) in EuropeSony VAIO VGN-CS13T/W battery. The use of chrome yellow declined due to environmental and safety concerns and was replaced by organic pigments or alternatives free from lead and chromium. Other pigments based on chromium are, for example, the bright red pigment chrome red, which is a basic lead chromate (PbCrO4·Pb(OH)2). A very important chromate pigment, which was used widely in metal primer formulations was zinc chromateSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/W battery, now replaced by zinc phosphate. A wash primer was formulated to replace the dangerous practice of pretreating aluminium aircraft bodies with a phosphoric acid solution. This used zinc tetroxychromate dispersed in a solution of polyvinyl butyral. An 8% solution of phosphoric acid in solvent was added just before applicationSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/R battery. It was found that an easily oxidized alcohol was an essential ingredient. A thin layer of about 10–15 microns was applied, which turned from yellow to dark green when it was cured. There is still a question as to the correct mechanism. Chrome green is a mixture of Prussian blue and chrome yellow, while the chrome oxide green is Chromium(III) oxide.[33]

A red color is achieved by doping chromium(III) into the crystals of corundum, which are then called ruby. Therefore, chromium is used in producing synthetic rubiesSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/Q battery.[34]

Chromium oxides are also used as a green color in glassmaking and as a glaze in ceramics.[35] Green chromium oxide is extremely light-fast and as such is used in cladding coatings. It is also the main ingredient in IR reflecting paints, used by the armed forces, to paint vehicles, to give them the same IR reflectance as green leavesSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/P battery.[36]

[edit]Wood preservative

Because of their toxicity, chromium(VI) salts are used for the preservation of wood. For example, chromated copper arsenate (CCA) is used in timber treatment to protect wood from decay fungi, wood attacking insects, including termites, and marine borers.[37] The formulations contain chromium based on the oxide CrO3 between 35.3% and 65.5%. In the United States, 65,300 metric tons of CCA solution have been used in 1996Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/T battery.[37]

[edit]Tanning

Main article: Tanning

Chromium(III) salts, especially chrome alum and chromium(III) sulfate, are used in the tanning of leather. The chromium(III) stabilizes the leather by cross linking the collagen fibers.[38] Chromium tanned leather can contain between 4 and 5% of chromium, which is tightly bound to the proteins.[8] Although the form of chromium used for tanning is not the toxic hexavalent varietySony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R battery, there remains interest in management of chromium in the tanning industry such as recovery and reuse, direct/indirect recycling,[39] use of less chromium or “chrome-less” tanning are practiced to better manage chromium in tanning.

[edit]Refractory material

The high heat resistivity and high melting point makes chromite and chromium(III) oxide a material for high temperature refractory applications, like blast furnaces, cement kilns, molds for the firing of bricks and as foundry sands for the casting of metalsSony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W battery. In these applications, the refractory materials are made from mixtures of chromite and magnesite. The use is declining because of the environmental regulations due to the possibility of the formation of chromium(VI).[27]

[edit]Catalysts

Several chromium compounds are used as catalysts for processing hydrocarbons. For example the Phillips catalysts for the production of polyethylene are mixtures of chromium and silicon dioxide or mixtures of chromium and titanium and aluminium oxide.[40] Fe-Cr mixed oxides are employed as high-temperature catalysts for the water gas shift reaction. Copper chromite is a useful hydrogenation catalystSony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q battery.[43]

[edit]Other use

Chromium(IV) oxide (CrO2) is a magnetic compound. Its ideal shape anisotropy, which imparts high coercivity and remnant magnetization, made it a compound superior to the ?-Fe2O3. Chromium(IV) oxide is used to manufacture magnetic tape used in high-performance audio tape and standard audio cassettes.[44] Chromates can prevent corrosion of steel under wet conditions, and therefore chromates are added to drilling muds. Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P battery

Chromium(III) oxide is a metal polish known as green rouge.

Chromic acid is a powerful oxidizing agent and is a useful compound for cleaning laboratory glassware of any trace of organic compounds. It is prepared in situ by dissolving potassium dichromate in concentrated sulfuric acid, which is then used to wash the apparatus. Sodium dichromate is sometimes used because of its higher solubility (50 g/L versus 200 g/L respectively) (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery). Potassium dichromate is a chemical reagent, used in cleaning laboratory glassware and as a titrating agent. It is also used as a mordant (i.e., a fixing agent) for dyes in fabric.

[edit]Biological role

Chromium has no verified biological role and has been classified as not essential for mammals.[46] (Cr(III) or Cr3+) occurs in trace amounts and appears to be benign.[47] Chromium deficiency is controversial or is at least extremely rare. It has been attributed to only three people on parenteral nutrition(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B battery), which is when a patient is fed a liquid diet through intravenous drips.[48] In contrast, hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI) or Cr6+) is very toxic and mutagenic when inhaled. Cr(VI) has not been established as a carcinogen when in solution, although it may cause allergic contact dermatitis (ACD).[49] Although no biological role for chromium has ever been demonstrated, dietary supplements for chromium include chromium(III) picolinate, chromium(III) polynicotinate, and related materials(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery). The benefit of those supplements is questioned by some studies.[50]

The use of chromium-containing dietary supplements is controversial owing to the absence of any verified biological role, the expense of these supplements, and the complex effects of their use.[51] The popular dietary supplement chromium picolinate complex generates chromosome damage in hamster cells (due to the picolinate ligand) (Sony VAIO VGN-AW170C battery).[52] In the United States the dietary guidelines for daily chromium uptake were lowered from 50–200 µg for an adult to 35 µg (adult male) and to 25 µg (adult female).[53]

[edit]Precautions

Main article: Chromium toxicity

Water insoluble chromium(III) compounds and chromium metal are not considered a health hazard, while the toxicity and carcinogenic properties of chromium(VI) have been known for a long time.[54] Because of the specific transport mechanisms, only limited amounts of chromium(III) enter the cells(Sony VAIO VGN-AW19/Q battery). Several in vitro studies indicated that high concentrations of chromium(III) in the cell can lead to DNA damage.[55] Acute oral toxicity ranges between 1.5 and 3.3 mg/kg.[56] The proposed beneficial effects of chromium(III) and the use as dietary supplements yielded some controversial results, but recent reviews suggest that moderate uptake of chromium(III) through dietary supplements poses no risk(Sony VAIO VGN-AW19 battery).[55]

[edit]Cr(VI)

The acute oral toxicity for chromium(VI) ranges between 50 and 150 µg/kg.[56] In the body, chromium(VI) is reduced by several mechanisms to chromium(III) already in the blood before it enters the cells. The chromium(III) is excreted from the body, whereas the chromate ion is transferred into the cell by a transport mechanism(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21M/H battery), by which also sulfate and phosphate ions enter the cell. The acute toxicity of chromium(VI) is due to its strong oxidational properties. After it reaches the blood stream, it damages the kidneys, the liver and blood cells through oxidation reactions. Hemolysis, renal and liver failure are the results of these damages. Aggressive dialysis can improve the situation(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21S/B battery).[57]

The carcinogenity of chromate dust is known for a long time, and in 1890 the first publication described the elevated cancer risk of workers in a chromate dye company.[58][59] Three mechanisms have been proposed to describe the genotoxicity of chromium(VI). The first mechanism includes highly reactive hydroxyl radicals and other reactive radicals which are by products of the reduction of chromium(VI) to chromium(III) (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21VY/Q battery). The second process includes the direct binding of chromium(V), produced by reduction in the cell, and chromium(IV) compounds to the DNA. The last mechanism attributed the genotoxicity to the binding to the DNA of the end product of the chromium(III) reduction.[60]

Chromium salts (chromates) are also the cause of allergic reactions in some people. Chromates are often used to manufacture, amongst other things, leather products(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21XY/Q battery), paints, cement, mortar and anti-corrosives. Contact with products containing chromates can lead to allergic contact dermatitis and irritant dermatitis, resulting in ulceration of the skin, sometimes referred to as “chrome ulcers”. This condition is often found in workers that have been exposed to strong chromate solutions in electroplating, tanning and chrome-producing manufacturers. (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21Z/B battery)

[edit]Environmental issues

As chromium compounds were used in dyes and paints and the tanning of leather, these compounds are often found in soil and groundwater at abandoned industrial sites, now needing environmental cleanup and remediation per the treatment of brownfield land. Primer paint containing hexavalent chromium is still widely used for aerospace and automobile refinishing applications. (Sony VAIO VGN-AW31M/H battery)

In 2010, the Environmental Working Group studied the drinking water in 35 American cities. The study was the first nationwide analysis measuring the presence of the chemical in U.S. water systems. The study found measurable hexavalent chromium in the tap water of 31 of the cities sampled, with Norman, Oklahoma, at the top of list(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31S/B battery); 25 cities had levels that exceeded California’s proposed limit.[64] Note: Concentrations of Cr VI in US municipal drinking water supplies reported by EWG are within likely, natural background levels for the areas tested and not necessarily indicative of industrial pollution (CalEPA Fact Sheet), as asserted by EWG. This factor was not taken into consideration in their report(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF battery).

Helium is the second lightest element and is the second most abundant element in the observable universe, being present at about 24% of the total elemental mass, which is more than 12 times the mass of all the heavier elements combined. Its abundance is similar to this figure in our own Sun and in JupiterSony VAIO VGN-CS33H/Z battery. This is due to the very high binding energy (per nucleon) of helium-4 with respect to the next three elements after helium. This helium-4 binding energy also accounts for its commonality as a product in both nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. Most helium in the universe is helium-4, and is believed to have been formed during the Big Bang. Some new helium is being created currently as a result of the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in starsSony VAIO VGN-CS33H/B battery.

Helium is named for the Greek God of the Sun, Helios. It was first detected as an unknown yellow spectral line signature in sunlight during a solar eclipse in 1868 by French astronomer Jules Janssen. Janssen is jointly credited with detecting the element along with Norman Lockyer during the solar eclipse of 1868, and Lockyer was the first to propose that the line was due to a new element, which he namedSony VAIO VGN-CS31Z/Q battery. The formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by two Swedish chemists, Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet, who found helium emanating from the uranium ore cleveite. In 1903, large reserves of helium were found in natural gas fields in parts of the United States, which is by far the largest supplier of the gas todaySony VAIO VGN-CS31S/W battery.

Helium is used in cryogenics (its largest single use, absorbing about a quarter of production), particularly in the cooling of superconducting magnets, with the main commercial application being in MRI scanners. Helium’s other industrial uses—as a pressurizing and purge gas, as a protective atmosphere for arc welding and in processes such as growing crystals to make silicon wafers—account for half of the gas producedSony VAIO VGN-CS31S/V battery. A well-known but minor use is as a lifting gas in balloons and airships.[2] As with any gas with differing density from air, inhaling a small volume of helium temporarily changes the timbre and quality of the human voice. In scientific research, the behavior of the two fluid phases of helium-4 (helium I and helium II), is important to researchers studying quantum mechanics Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/T battery (in particular the property of superfluidity) and to those looking at the phenomena, such as superconductivity, that temperatures near absolute zero produce in matter.

On Earth it is thus relatively rare—0.00052% by volume in the atmosphere. Most terrestrial helium present today is created by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements (thorium and uranium) Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/R battery, as the alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 nuclei. This radiogenic helium is trapped with natural gas in concentrations up to 7% by volume, from which it is extracted commercially by a low-temperature separation process called fractional distillation.

History

Scientific discoveries

The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18, 1868 as a bright yellow line with a wavelength of 587.49 nanometers in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the SunSony VAIO VGN-CS31S/P battery. The line was detected by French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India.[3][4] This line was initially assumed to be sodium. On October 20 of the same year, English astronomer Norman Lockyer observed a yellow line in the solar spectrum, which he named the D3 Fraunhofer line because it was near the known D1 and D2 lines of sodiumSony VAIO VGN-CS28 battery.[5] He concluded that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth. Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element with the Greek word for the Sun, ????? (helios).[6][7][8]

Spectral lines of helium

In 1882, Italian physicist Luigi Palmieri detected helium on Earth, for the first time, through its D3 spectral line, when he analyzed the lava of Mount VesuviusSony VAIO VGN-CS28/Q battery.[9]

Sir William Ramsay, the discoverer of terrestrial helium

On March 26, 1895, Scottish chemist Sir William Ramsay isolated helium on Earth by treating the mineral cleveite (a variety of uraninite with at least 10% rare earth elements) with mineral acids. Ramsay was looking for argon but, after separating nitrogen and oxygen from the gas liberated by sulfuric acid, he noticed a bright yellow line that matched the D3 line observed in the spectrum of the Sun. Sony VAIO VGN-CS27 batteryThese samples were identified as helium by Lockyer and British physicist William Crookes. It was independently isolated from cleveite in the same year by chemists Per Teodor Cleve and Abraham Langlet in Uppsala, Sweden, who collected enough of the gas to accurately determine its atomic weight. Helium was also isolated by the American geochemist William Francis Hillebrand prior to Ramsay’s discovery when he noticed unusual spectral lines while testing a sample of the mineral uraninite. Hillebrand, however, attributed the lines to nitrogenSony VAIO VGN-CS27/W battery. His letter of congratulations to Ramsay offers an interesting case of discovery and near-discovery in science.[15]

In 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds demonstrated that alpha particles are helium nuclei by allowing the particles to penetrate the thin glass wall of an evacuated tube, then creating a discharge in the tube to study the spectra of the new gas insideSony VAIO VGN-CS27/R battery. In 1908, helium was first liquefied by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes by cooling the gas to less than one kelvin.[16] He tried to solidify it by further reducing the temperature but failed because helium does not have a triple point temperature at which the solid, liquid, and gas phases are at equilibrium. Onnes’ student Willem Hendrik Keesom was eventually able to solidify 1 cm3 of helium in 1926 by applying additional external pressureSony VAIO VGN-CS27/P battery.[17]

In 1938, Russian physicist Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa discovered that helium-4 has almost no viscosity at temperatures near absolute zero, a phenomenon now called superfluidity.[18] This phenomenon is related to Bose-Einstein condensation. In 1972, the same phenomenon was observed in helium-3, but at temperatures much closer to absolute zeroSony VAIO VGN-CS27/C battery, by American physicists Douglas D. Osheroff, David M. Lee, and Robert C. Richardson. The phenomenon in helium-3 is thought to be related to pairing of helium-3 fermions to make bosons, in analogy to Cooper pairs of electrons producing superconductivity.[19]

Extraction and use

After an oil drilling operation in 1903 in Dexter, Kansas, produced a gas geyser that would not burn, Kansas state geologist Erasmus Haworth collected samples of the escaping gas and took them back to the University of Kansas at Lawrence whereSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/W battery, with the help of chemists Hamilton Cady and David McFarland, he discovered that the gas consisted of, by volume, 72% nitrogen, 15% methane (a combustible percentage only with sufficient oxygen), 1% hydrogen, and 12% an unidentifiable gas.[4][20] With further analysis, Cady and McFarland discovered that 1.84% of the gas sample was helium. Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/V battery This showed that despite its overall rarity on Earth, helium was concentrated in large quantities under the American Great Plains, available for extraction as a byproduct of natural gas.[23] The greatest reserves of helium were in the Hugoton and nearby gas fields in southwest Kansas and the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma.

This enabled the United States to become the world’s leading supplier of helium. Following a suggestion by Sir Richard ThrelfallSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/T battery, the United States Navy sponsored three small experimental helium plants during World War I. The goal was to supply barrage balloons with the non-flammable, lighter-than-air gas. A total of 5,700 m3 (200,000 cubic feet) of 92% helium was produced in the program even though less than a cubic meter of the gas had previously been obtained.[5] Some of this gas was used in the world’s first helium-filled airshipSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/R battery, the U.S. Navy’s C-7, which flew its maiden voyage from Hampton Roads, Virginia, to Bolling Field in Washington, D.C., on December 1, 1921.[24]

Although the extraction process, using low-temperature gas liquefaction, was not developed in time to be significant during World War I, production continued. Helium was primarily used as a lifting gas in lighter-than-air craftSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/Q battery. This use increased demand during World War II, as well as demands for shielded arc welding. The helium mass spectrometer was also vital in the atomic bomb Manhattan Project.[25]

The government of the United States set up the National Helium Reserve in 1925 at Amarillo, Texas, with the goal of supplying military airships in time of war and commercial airships in peacetimeSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/P battery.[5] Because of a US military embargo against Germany that restricted helium supplies, the Hindenburg, like all German Zeppelins, was forced to use hydrogen as the lift gas. Helium use following World War II was depressed but the reserve was expanded in the 1950s to ensure a supply of liquid helium as a coolant to create oxygen/hydrogen rocket fuel (among other uses) during the Space Race and Cold WarSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/C battery. Helium use in the United States in 1965 was more than eight times the peak wartime consumption.[26]

After the “Helium Acts Amendments of 1960″ (Public Law 86–777), the U.S. Bureau of Mines arranged for five private plants to recover helium from natural gas. For this helium conservation program, the Bureau built a 425-mile (684 km) pipeline from Bushton, Kansas, to connect those plants with the government’s partially depleted Cliffside gas fieldSony VAIO VGN-CS25H battery, near Amarillo, Texas. This helium-nitrogen mixture was injected and stored in the Cliffside gas field until needed, when it then was further purified.[27]

By 1995, a billion cubic meters of the gas had been collected and the reserve was US$1.4 billion in debt, prompting the Congress of the United States in 1996 to phase out the reserve.[4][28] The resulting “Helium Privatization Act of 1996″[29] (Public Law 104–273) directed the United States Department of the Interior to start emptying the reserve by 2005Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/W battery.[30]

Helium produced between 1930 and 1945 was about 98.3% pure (2% nitrogen), which was adequate for airships. In 1945, a small amount of 99.9% helium was produced for welding use. By 1949, commercial quantities of Grade A 99.95% helium were available.[31]

For many years the United States produced over 90% of commercially usable helium in the world, while extraction plants in CanadaSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/R battery, Poland, Russia, and other nations produced the remainder. In the mid-1990s, a new plant in Arzew, Algeria, producing 17 million cubic meters (600 million cubic feet) began operation, with enough production to cover all of Europe’s demand. Meanwhile, by 2000, the consumption of helium within the U.S. had risen to above 15 million kg per yearSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/Q battery.[32] In 2004–2006, two additional plants, one in Ras Laffan, Qatar, and the other in Skikda, Algeria, were built, but as of early 2007, Ras Laffan is functioning at 50%, and Skikda has yet to start up. Algeria quickly became the second leading producer of helium.[33] Through this time, both helium consumption and the costs of producing helium increased.[34] In the 2002 to 2007 period helium prices doubledSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/P battery.[35]

Characteristics

The helium atom

Main article: Helium atom

The helium atom. Depicted are the nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in helium-4 is in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the electron cloud, although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case.

Helium in quantum mechanics

In the perspective of quantum mechanics, helium is the second simplest atom to model, following the hydrogen atomSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/C battery. Helium is composed of two electrons in atomic orbitals surrounding a nucleus containing two protons along with some neutrons. As in Newtonian mechanics, no system consisting of more than two particles can be solved with an exact analytical mathematical approach (see 3-body problem) and helium is no exception. Thus, numerical mathematical methods are required, even to solve the system of one nucleus and two electronsSony VAIO VGN-CS23T/W battery. Such computational chemistry methods have been used to create a quantum mechanical picture of helium electron binding which is accurate to within < 2% of the correct value, in a few computational steps.[36] In such models it is found that each electron in helium partly screens the nucleus from the other, so that the effective nuclear charge Z which each electron sees, is about 1.69 units, not the 2 charges of a classic “bare” helium nucleusSony VAIO VGN-CS23T/Q battery.

The related stability of the helium-4 nucleus and electron shell

The nucleus of the helium-4 atom is identical with an alpha particle. High energy electron-scattering experiments show its charge to decrease exponentially from a maximum at a central point, exactly as does the charge density of helium’s own electron cloud. This symmetry reflects similar underlying physicsSony VAIO VGN-CS23H battery: the pair of neutrons and the pair of protons in helium’s nucleus obey the same quantum mechanical rules as do helium’s pair of electrons (although the nuclear particles are subject to a different nuclear binding potential), so that all these fermions fully occupy 1s orbitals in pairs, none of them possessing orbital angular momentum, and each cancelling the other’s intrinsic spinSony VAIO VGN-CS23H/S battery. Adding another of any of these particles would require angular momentum and would release substantially less energy (in fact, no nucleus with five nucleons is stable). This arrangement is thus energetically extremely stable for all these particles, and this stability accounts for many crucial facts regarding helium in nature.

For example, the stability and low energy of the electron cloud state in helium accounts for the element’s chemical inertnessSony VAIO VGN-CS23H/B battery, and also the lack of interaction of helium atoms with each other, producing the lowest melting and boiling points of all the elements.

In a similar way, the particular energetic stability of the helium-4 nucleus, produced by similar effects, accounts for the ease of helium-4 production in atomic reactions involving both heavy-particle emission, and fusion. Some stable helium-3 is produced in fusion reactions from hydrogen, but it is a very small fractionSony VAIO VGN-CS23G battery, compared with the highly favorable helium-4. The stability of helium-4 is the reason hydrogen is converted to helium-4 (not deuterium or helium-3 or heavier elements) in the Sun. It is also partly responsible for the fact that the alpha particle is by far the most common type of baryonic particle to be ejected from atomic nuclei; in other words, alpha decay is far more common than cluster decaySony VAIO VGN-CS23G/W battery.

The unusual stability of the helium-4 nucleus is also important cosmologically: it explains the fact that in the first few minutes after the Big Bang, as the “soup” of free protons and neutrons which had initially been created in about 6:1 ratio cooled to the point that nuclear binding was possible, almost all first compound atomic nuclei to form were helium-4 nucleiSony VAIO VGN-CS23G/Q battery. So tight was helium-4 binding that helium-4 production consumed nearly all of the free neutrons in a few minutes, before they could beta-decay, and also leaving few to form heavier atoms such as lithium, beryllium, or boron. Helium-4 nuclear binding per nucleon is stronger than in any of these elements (see nucleogenesis and binding energy) and thus no energetic drive was availableSony VAIO VGN-CS23G/P battery, once helium had been formed, to make elements 3, 4 and 5. It was barely energetically favorable for helium to fuse into the next element with a lower energy per nucleon, carbon. However, due to lack of intermediate elements, this process requires three helium nuclei striking each other nearly simultaneously (see triple alpha process) Sony VAIO VGN-CS21Z/Q battery. There was thus no time for significant carbon to be formed in the few minutes after the Big Bang, before the early expanding universe cooled to the temperature and pressure point where helium fusion to carbon was no longer possible. This left the early universe with a very similar ratio of hydrogen/helium as is observed today (3 parts hydrogen to 1 part helium-4 by mass), with nearly all the neutrons in the universe trapped in helium-4Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/W battery.

All heavier elements (including those necessary for rocky planets like the Earth, and for carbon-based or other life) have thus been created since the Big Bang in stars which were hot enough to fuse helium itself. All elements other than hydrogen and helium today account for only 2% of the mass of atomic matter in the universe. Helium-4, by contrast, makes up about 23% of the universe’s ordinary matter—nearly all the ordinary matter that is not hydrogenSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/V battery.

Gas and plasma phases

Helium discharge tube shaped like the element’s atomic symbol

Helium is the least reactive noble gas after neon and thus the second least reactive of all elements;[37] it is inert and monatomic in all standard conditions. Because of helium’s relatively low molar (atomic) mass, its thermal conductivity, specific heat, and sound speed in the gas phase are all greater than any other gas except hydrogen. For similar reasonsSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/T battery, and also due to the small size of helium atoms, helium’s diffusion rate through solids is three times that of air and around 65% that of hydrogen.[5]

Helium is the least water soluble monatomic gas,[38] and one of the least water soluble of any gas (CF4, SF6, and C4F8 have lower mole fraction solubilities: 0.3802, 0.4394, and 0.2372 x2/10?5, respectively, versus helium’s 0.70797 x2/10?5),[39] and helium’s index of refraction is closer to unity than that of any other gasSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/R battery.[40] Helium has a negative Joule-Thomson coefficient at normal ambient temperatures, meaning it heats up when allowed to freely expand. Only below its Joule-Thomson inversion temperature (of about 32 to 50 K at 1 atmosphere) does it cool upon free expansion.[5] Once precooled below this temperature, helium can be liquefied through expansion coolingSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/P battery.

Most extraterrestrial helium is found in a plasma state, with properties quite different from those of atomic helium. In a plasma, helium’s electrons are not bound to its nucleus, resulting in very high electrical conductivity, even when the gas is only partially ionized. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind together with ionized hydrogenSony VAIO VGN-CS215J/R battery, the particles interact with the Earth’s magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora.[41]

Solid and liquid phases

Liquefied helium. This helium is not only liquid, but has been cooled to the point of superfluidity. The drop of liquid at the bottom of the glass represents helium spontaneously escaping from the container over the side, to empty out of the container. The energy to drive this process is supplied by the potential energy of the falling helium. See superfluidSony VAIO VGN-CS215J/Q battery.

Main article: Liquid helium

Unlike any other element, helium will remain liquid down to absolute zero at normal pressures. This is a direct effect of quantum mechanics: specifically, the zero point energy of the system is too high to allow freezing. Solid helium requires a temperature of 1–1.5 K (about ?272 °C or ?457 °F) and about 25 bar (2.5 MPa) of pressure.[42] It is often hard to distinguish solid from liquid helium since the refractive index of the two phases are nearly the sameSony VAIO VGN-CS19/W battery. The solid has a sharp melting point and has a crystalline structure, but it is highly compressible; applying pressure in a laboratory can decrease its volume by more than 30%.[43] With a bulk modulus of about 27 MPa[44] it is ~100 times more compressible than water. Solid helium has a density of 0.214 ± 0.006 g/cm3 at 1.15 K and 66 atm; the projected density at 0 K and 25 bar (2.5 MPa) is 0.187 ± 0.009 g/cm3. Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/R battery

Helium I state

Below its boiling point of 4.22 kelvins and above the lambda point of 2.1768 kelvins, the isotope helium-4 exists in a normal colorless liquid state, called helium I.[5] Like other cryogenic liquids, helium I boils when it is heated and contracts when its temperature is lowered. Below the lambda point, however, helium does not boil, and it expands as the temperature is lowered furtherSony VAIO VGN-CS19/Q battery.

Helium I has a gas-like index of refraction of 1.026 which makes its surface so hard to see that floats of styrofoam are often used to show where the surface is.[5] This colorless liquid has a very low viscosity and a density of 0.145–0.125 g/mL (between about 0 and 4 K, respectively),[46] which is only one-fourth the value expected from classical physics. Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/P battery Quantum mechanics is needed to explain this property and thus both types of liquid helium are called quantum fluids, meaning they display atomic properties on a macroscopic scale. This may be an effect of its boiling point being so close to absolute zero, preventing random molecular motion (thermal energy) from masking the atomic propertiesSony VAIO VGN-CS17H/W battery.[5]

Helium II state

Liquid helium below its lambda point begins to exhibit very unusual characteristics, in a state called helium II. Boiling of helium II is not possible due to its high thermal conductivity; heat input instead causes evaporation of the liquid directly to gas. Helium-3 also has a superfluid phase, but only at much lower temperatures; as a result, less is known about such properties in the isotopeSony VAIO VGN-CS17H/Q battery.[5]

Unlike ordinary liquids, helium II will creep along surfaces in order to reach an equal level; after a short while, the levels in the two containers will equalize. The Rollin film also covers the interior of the larger container; if it were not sealed, the helium II would creep out and escape.[5]

Helium II is a superfluid, a quantum mechanical state (see: macroscopic quantum phenomena) of matter with strange propertiesSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/W battery . For example, when it flows through capillaries as thin as 10?7 to 10?8 m it has no measurable viscosity.[4] However, when measurements were done between two moving discs, a viscosity comparable to that of gaseous helium was observed. Current theory explains this using the two-fluid model for helium II. In this model, liquid helium below the lambda point is viewed as containing a proportion of helium atoms in a ground stateSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/T battery, which are superfluid and flow with exactly zero viscosity, and a proportion of helium atoms in an excited state, which behave more like an ordinary fluid.[47]

In the fountain effect, a chamber is constructed which is connected to a reservoir of helium II by a sintered disc through which superfluid helium leaks easily but through which non-superfluid helium cannot pass. If the interior of the container is heated, the superfluid helium changes to non-superfluid helium. In order to maintain the equilibrium fraction of superfluid heliumSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/R battery, superfluid helium leaks through and increases the pressure, causing liquid to fountain out of the container.[48]

The thermal conductivity of helium II is greater than that of any other known substance, a million times that of helium I and several hundred times that of copper.[5] This is because heat conduction occurs by an exceptional quantum mechanism. Most materials that conduct heat well have a valence band of free electrons which serve to transfer the heatSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/Q battery. Helium II has no such valence band but nevertheless conducts heat well. The flow of heat is governed by equations that are similar to the wave equation used to characterize sound propagation in air. When heat is introduced, it moves at 20 meters per second at 1.8 K through helium II as waves in a phenomenon known as second soundSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/P battery.[5]

Helium II also exhibits a creeping effect. When a surface extends past the level of helium II, the helium II moves along the surface, against the force of gravity. Helium II will escape from a vessel that is not sealed by creeping along the sides until it reaches a warmer region where it evaporates. It moves in a 30 nm-thick film regardless of surface materialSony VAIO VGN-CS13T/W battery. This film is called a Rollin film and is named after the man who first characterized this trait, Bernard V. Rollin.[5][49][50] As a result of this creeping behavior and helium II’s ability to leak rapidly through tiny openings, it is very difficult to confine liquid helium. Unless the container is carefully constructed, the helium II will creep along the surfaces and through valves until it reaches somewhere warmer, where it will evaporateSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/W battery. Waves propagating across a Rollin film are governed by the same equation as gravity waves in shallow water, but rather than gravity, the restoring force is the van der Waals force.[51] These waves are known as third sound.[52]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of helium

There are eight known isotopes of helium, but only helium-3 and helium-4 are stable. In the Earth’s atmosphere, there is one 3He atom for every million 4He atoms.[4] Unlike most elements, helium’s isotopic abundance varies greatly by origin, due to the different formation processesSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/R battery. The most common isotope, helium-4, is produced on Earth by alpha decay of heavier radioactive elements; the alpha particles that emerge are fully ionized helium-4 nuclei. Helium-4 is an unusually stable nucleus because its nucleons are arranged into complete shells. It was also formed in enormous quantities during Big Bang nucleosynthesisSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/Q battery.[53]

Helium-3 is present on Earth only in trace amounts; most of it since Earth’s formation, though some falls to Earth trapped in cosmic dust.[54] Trace amounts are also produced by the beta decay of tritium.[55] Rocks from the Earth’s crust have isotope ratios varying by as much as a factor of ten, and these ratios can be used to investigate the origin of rocks and the composition of the Earth’s mantle.[54] 3He is much more abundant in stars, as a product of nuclear fusionSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/P battery. Thus in the interstellar medium, the proportion of 3He to 4He is around 100 times higher than on Earth.[56] Extraplanetary material, such as lunar and asteroid regolith, have trace amounts of helium-3 from being bombarded by solar winds. The Moon’s surface contains helium-3 at concentrations on the order of 0.01 ppm, much higher than the ca. 5 ppt found in the Earth’s atmosphere. Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/T battery A number of people, starting with Gerald Kulcinski in 1986,[59] have proposed to explore the moon, mine lunar regolith and use the helium-3 for fusion.

Liquid helium-4 can be cooled to about 1 kelvin using evaporative cooling in a 1-K pot. Similar cooling of helium-3, which has a lower boiling point, can achieve about 0.2 kelvin in a helium-3 refrigerator. Equal mixtures of liquid 3He and 4He below 0.8 K separate into two immiscible phases due to their dissimilarity (they follow different quantum statisticsSony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R battery: helium-4 atoms are bosons while helium-3 atoms are fermions).[5] Dilution refrigerators use this immiscibility to achieve temperatures of a few millikelvins.

It is possible to produce exotic helium isotopes, which rapidly decay into other substances. The shortest-lived heavy helium isotope is helium-5 with a half-life of 7.6×10?22 s. Helium-6 decays by emitting a beta particle and has a half-life of 0.8 secondSony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W battery. Helium-7 also emits a beta particle as well as a gamma ray. Helium-7 and helium-8 are created in certain nuclear reactions.[5] Helium-6 and helium-8 are known to exhibit a nuclear halo. Helium-2 (two protons, no neutrons) is a radioisotope that decays by proton emission into protium (hydrogen), with a half-life of 3×10?27 sSony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q battery.[5]

Compounds

See also: Noble gas compound

Helium has a valence of zero and is chemically unreactive under all normal conditions.[43] It is an electrical insulator unless ionized. As with the other noble gases, helium has metastable energy levels that allow it to remain ionized in an electrical discharge with a voltage below its ionization potential.[5] Helium can form unstable compounds, known as excimers, with tungstenSony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P battery, iodine, fluorine, sulfur and phosphorus when it is subjected to an electric glow discharge, to electron bombardment, or else is a plasma for another reason. The molecular compounds HeNe, HgHe10, and WHe2, and the molecular ions He+

2, He2+

2, HeH+, and HeD+ have been created this way.[60] This technique has also allowed the production of the neutral molecule He2, which has a large number of band systems, and HgHe, which is apparently held together only by polarization forces(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery).[5] Theoretically, other true compounds may also be possible, such as helium fluorohydride (HHeF) which would be analogous to HArF, discovered in 2000.[61] Calculations show that two new compounds containing a helium-oxygen bond could be stable.[62] Two new molecular species, predicted using theory, CsFHeO and N(CH3)4FHeO, are derivatives of a metastable (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B battery) anion first theorized in 2005 by a group from Taiwan. If confirmed by experiment, such compounds will end helium’s chemical inertness, and the only remaining inert element will be neon.[63]

Helium has been put inside the hollow carbon cage molecules (the fullerenes) by heating under high pressure. The endohedral fullerene molecules formed are stable up to high temperatures. When chemical derivatives of these fullerenes are formed, the helium stays inside(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery).[64] If helium-3 is used, it can be readily observed by helium nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.[65] Many fullerenes containing helium-3 have been reported. Although the helium atoms are not attached by covalent or ionic bonds, these substances have distinct properties and a definite composition, like all stoichiometric chemical compounds(Sony VAIO VGN-AW170C battery).

Occurrence and production

Natural abundance

Helium is the second most abundant element in the known Universe (after hydrogen), constituting 23% of its baryonic mass.[4] The vast majority of helium was formed by Big Bang nucleosynthesis one to three minutes after the Big Bang. As such, measurements of its abundance contribute to cosmological models(Sony VAIO VGN-AW19/Q battery). In stars, it is formed by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in proton-proton chain reactions and the CNO cycle, part of stellar nucleosynthesis.[53]

In the Earth’s atmosphere, the concentration of helium by volume is only 5.2 parts per million.[66][67] The concentration is low and fairly constant despite the continuous production of new helium because most helium in the Earth’s atmosphere escapes into space by several processes. In the Earth’s heterosphere, a part of the upper atmosphere, helium and other lighter gases are the most abundant elements(Sony VAIO VGN-AW19 battery).

Most helium on Earth is a result of radioactive decay. Helium is found in large amounts in minerals of uranium and thorium, including cleveite, pitchblende, carnotite and monazite, because they emit alpha particles (helium nuclei, He2+) to which electrons immediately combine as soon as the particle is stopped by the rock. In this way an estimated 3000 metric tons of helium are generated per year throughout the lithosphere. (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21M/H battery) In the Earth’s crust, the concentration of helium is 8 parts per billion. In seawater, the concentration is only 4 parts per trillion. There are also small amounts in mineral springs, volcanic gas, and meteoric iron. Because helium is trapped in the subsurface under conditions that also trap natural gas, the greatest natural concentrations of helium on the planet are found in natural gas, from which most commercial helium is extracted(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21S/B battery). The concentration varies in a broad range from a few ppm up to over 7% in a small gas field in San Juan County, New Mexico.[74][75]

Modern extraction and distribution

For large-scale use, helium is extracted by fractional distillation from natural gas, which contains up to 7% helium.[76] Since helium has a lower boiling point than any other element, low temperature and high pressure are used to liquefy nearly all the other gases (mostly nitrogen and methane) (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21VY/Q battery). The resulting crude helium gas is purified by successive exposures to lowering temperatures, in which almost all of the remaining nitrogen and other gases are precipitated out of the gaseous mixture. Activated charcoal is used as a final purification step, usually resulting in 99.995% pure Grade-A helium.[5] The principal impurity in Grade-A helium is neon. In a final production step, most of the helium that is produced is liquefied via a cryogenic process(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21XY/Q battery). This is necessary for applications requiring liquid helium and also allows helium suppliers to reduce the cost of long distance transportation, as the largest liquid helium containers have more than five times the capacity of the largest gaseous helium tube trailers.[33][77]

In 2008, approximately 169 million standard cubic meters (SCM) of helium were extracted from natural gas or withdrawn from helium reserves with approximately 78% from the United States, 10% from Algeria, and most of the remainder from Russia, Poland and Qatar(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21Z/B battery).[78] In the United States, most helium is extracted from natural gas of the Hugoton and nearby gas fields in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas.[33] Much of this gas was once sent by pipeline to the National Helium Reserve, but since 2005 this reserve is presently being depleted and sold off.

Diffusion of crude natural gas through special semipermeable membranes and other barriers is another method to recover and purify helium.[79] In 1996, the U.S. had proven helium reserves, in such gas well complexes(Sony VAIO VGN-AW230J/H battery), of about 147 billion standard cubic feet (4.2 billion SCM).[80] At rates of use at that time (72 million SCM per year in the U.S.; see pie chart below) this is enough helium for about 58 years of U.S. use, and less than this (perhaps 80% of the time) at world use rates, although factors in saving and processing impact effective reserve numbers. It is estimated that the resource base for yet-unproven helium in natural gas in the U.S. is 31–53 trillion SCM, about 1000 times the proven reserves(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31M/H battery).[81]

Helium must be extracted from natural gas because it is present in air at only a fraction of that of neon, yet the demand for it is far higher. It is estimated that if all neon production were retooled to save helium, that 0.1% of the world’s helium demands would be satisfied. Similarly, only 1% of the world’s helium demands could be satisfied by re-tooling all air distillation plants(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31S/B battery).[82] Helium can be synthesized by bombardment of lithium or boron with high-velocity protons, but economically, this is a completely non-viable method of production.[83]

Helium is commercially available in either liquid or gaseous form. As a liquid, it can be supplied in small containers called Dewars which hold up to 1,000 liters of helium, or in large ISO containers which have nominal capacities as large as 42 m3 (around 11,000 U.S. gallons). In gaseous form, small quantities of helium are supplied in high pressure cylinders holding up to 8 m3 (Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF/H battery) (approx. 282 standard cubic feet), while large quantities of high pressure gas are supplied in tube trailers which have capacities of up to 4,860 m3 (approx. 172,000 standard cubic feet).

Conservation advocates

According to helium conservationists like Robert Coleman Richardson, the free market price of helium has contributed to “wasteful” usage (e.g. for helium balloons). Prices in the 2000s have been lowered by U.S. Congress’ decision to sell off the country’s large helium stockpile by 2015.[84] According to Richardson, the current price needs to be multiplied by 20 to eliminate the excessive wasting of helium(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF battery).

Applications

Helium is used for many purposes that require some of its unique properties, such as its low boiling point, low density, low solubility, high thermal conductivity, or inertness. Of the 2008 world helium total production of about 32 million kg (193 million standard cubic meters) helium per year, the largest use (about 22% of the total in 2008) is in cryogenic applications(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF/H battery), most of which involves cooling the superconducting magnets in medical MRI scanners.[86] Other major uses (totalling to about 78% of use in 1996) were pressurizing and purging systems, maintenance of controlled atmospheres, and welding. Other uses by category were relatively minor fractions(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF battery).[87]

Controlled atmospheres

Helium is used as a protective gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, in titanium and zirconium production, and in gas chromatography,[43] because it is inert. Because of its inertness, thermally and calorically perfect nature, high speed of sound, and high value of the heat capacity ratio, it is also useful in supersonic wind tunnels[88] and impulse facilities(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH/Q battery).[89]

Gas tungsten arc welding

Main article: gas tungsten arc welding

Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding processes on materials that at welding temperatures are contaminated and weakened by air or nitrogen.[4] A number of inert shelding gases are used in gas tungsten arc welding, but helium is used instead of cheaper argon especially for welding materials that have higher heat conductivity, like aluminium or copper(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH battery).

Minor uses

Industrial leak detection

A dual chamber helium leak detection machine

One industrial application for helium is leak detection. Because helium diffuses through solids three times faster than air, it is used as a tracer gas to detect leaks in high-vacuum equipment (such as cryogenic tanks) and high-pressure containers.[90] The tested object is placed in a chamber, which is then evacuated and filled with helium(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF/B battery). The helium that escapes through the leaks is detected by a sensitive device (helium mass spectrometer), even at the leak rates as small as 10?9 mbar·L/s (10?10 Pa·m3/s). The measurement procedure is normally automatic and is called helium integral test. A simpler procedure is to fill the tested object with helium and to manually search for leaks with a hand-held device(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF battery).[91]

Helium leaks through cracks should not be confused with gas permeation through a bulk material. While helium has documented permeation constants (thus a calculable permeation rate) through glasses, ceramics, and synthetic materials, inert gases such as helium will not permeate most bulk metals.[92]

Flight

Because of its low density and incombustibility, helium is the gas of choice to fill airships such as the Goodyear blimp(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M Battery).

Because it is lighter than air, airships and balloons are inflated with helium for lift. While hydrogen gas is approximately 7% more buoyant, helium has the advantage of being non-flammable (in addition to being fire retardant). While balloons are perhaps the most well-known use of helium, they are a minor part of all helium use(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S Battery).[28] Another minor use is in rocketry, where helium is used as an ullage medium to displace fuel and oxidizers in storage tanks and to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel. It is also used to purge fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment prior to launch and to pre-cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles. For example, the Saturn V booster used in the Apollo program needed about 370,000 m3 (13 million cubic feet) of helium to launch(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M Battery).[43]

Minor commercial and recreational uses

For its low solubility in nervous tissue, helium mixtures such as trimix, heliox and heliair are used for deep diving to reduce the effects of narcosis.[93][94] At depths below 150 metres (490 ft) small amounts of hydrogen[citation needed] are added to a helium-oxygen mixture to counter the effects of high pressure nervous syndrome.[95] At these depths the low density of helium is found to considerably reduce the effort of breathing(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z Battery).[96]

Helium-neon lasers, a type of low-powered gas laser producing a red beam, had various practical applications which included barcode readers and laser pointers, before they were almost universally replaced by cheaper diode lasers.[4]

For its inertness and high thermal conductivity, neutron transparency, and because it does not form radioactive isotopes under reactor conditions, helium is used as a heat-transfer medium in some gas-cooled nuclear reactors(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z Battery).[90]

Helium, mixed with a heavier gas such as xenon, is useful for thermoacoustic refrigeration due to the resulting high heat capacity ratio and low Prandtl number.[97] The inertness of helium has environmental advantages over conventional refrigeration systems which contribute to ozone depletion or global warming(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M Battery).[98]

Scientific uses

The use of helium reduces the distorting effects of temperature variations in the space between lenses in some telescopes, due to its extremely low index of refraction.[5] This method is especially used in solar telescopes where a vacuum tight telescope tube would be too heavy. (SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S Battery)

Helium is a commonly used carrier gas for gas chromatography.

The age of rocks and minerals that contain uranium and thorium can be estimated by measuring the level of helium with a process known as helium dating.[4][5]

Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics, and in certain crygenics applications. As examples of applications, liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S Battery). The Large Hadron Collider at CERN uses 96 metric tons of liquid helium to maintain the temperature at 1.9 kelvin.[101]

Safety

Neutral helium at standard conditions is non-toxic, plays no biological role and is found in trace amounts in human blood. If enough helium is inhaled that oxygen needed for normal respiration is replaced, asphyxia is possible. The safety issues for cryogenic helium are similar to those of liquid nitrogen(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M Battery); its extremely low temperatures can result in cold burns and the liquid-to-gas expansion ratio can cause explosions if no pressure-relief devices are installed.

Containers of helium gas at 5 to 10 K should be handled as if they contain liquid helium due to the rapid and significant thermal expansion that occurs when helium gas at less than 10 K is warmed to room temperature(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z Battery).[43]

Biological effects

Effect of helium on a human voice

The effect of helium on a human voice

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The speed of sound in helium is nearly three times the speed of sound in air. Because the fundamental frequency of a gas-filled cavity is proportional to the speed of sound in the gas, when helium is inhaled there is a corresponding increase in the pitches of the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract.[4][102] This causes a reedy, duck-like vocal quality(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M Battery). (The opposite effect, lowering frequencies, can be obtained by inhaling a dense gas such as sulfur hexafluoride or xenon.)

Inhaling helium can be dangerous if done to excess, since helium is a simple asphyxiant and so displaces oxygen needed for normal respiration.[4][103] Breathing pure helium continuously causes death by asphyxiation within minutes. Inhaling helium directly from pressurized cylinders is extremely dangerous(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L Battery), as the high flow rate can result in barotrauma, fatally rupturing lung tissue.[103][104] However, death caused by helium is rare, with only two fatalities reported between 2000 and 2004 in the United States.[104] However, there were two cases in 2010, one in the USA[105] in January and another in Northern Ireland in November(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J Battery).[106]

At high pressures (more than about 20 atm or two MPa), a mixture of helium and oxygen (heliox) can lead to high-pressure nervous syndrome, a sort of reverse-anesthetic effect; adding a small amount of nitrogen to the mixture can alleviate the problem.[107][108]

Nitrogen ( /?na?tr?d??n/ ny-tr?-j?n) is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery), odorless, tasteless, and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.09% by volume of Earth’s atmosphere.[1] The element nitrogen was discovered as a separable component of air, by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford, in 1772.

Nitrogen is a common element in the universe, estimated at about seventh in total abundance in our galaxy and the solar system(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery). Its occurrence there is thought to be entirely due to synthesis by fusion from carbon and hydrogen in supernovas. Due to the volatility of elemental nitrogen and its common compounds with hydrogen and oxygen, nitrogen is far less common on the rocky planets of the inner solar system, and it is a relatively rare element on Earth as a whole. However, as is the case on Earth, nitrogen and its compounds occur commonly as gases in the atmospheres of planets and moons that have atmospheres(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J Battery).

Many industrially important compounds, such as ammonia, nitric acid, organic nitrates (propellants and explosives), and cyanides, contain nitrogen. The extremely strong bond in elemental nitrogen dominates nitrogen chemistry, causing difficulty for both organisms and industry in breaking the bond to convert the N2 into useful compounds(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E Battery), but at the same time causing release of large amounts of often useful energy when the compounds burn, explode, or decay back into nitrogen gas.

Nitrogen occurs in all living organisms, primarily in amino acids and thus proteins and in the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). The human body contains about 3% by weight of nitrogen, the fourth most abundant element after oxygen, carbon(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/W Battery), and hydrogen. Nitrogen resides in the chemical structure of almost all neurotransmitters, and is a defining component of alkaloids, biological molecules produced as secondary metabolites by many organisms. The nitrogen cycle describes movement of the element from the air into the biosphere and organic compounds, then back into the atmosphere. Synthetically produced nitrates are key ingredients of industrial fertilizers(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/P Battery),[1] and key pollutants in causing the eutrophication of water systems.

History and etymology

Nitrogen is formally considered to have been discovered by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air or fixed air.[2] The fact that there was an element of air that does not support combustion was clear to Rutherford. Nitrogen was also studied at about the same time by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/W Battery), who referred to it as burnt air or phlogisticated air. Nitrogen gas was inert enough that Antoine Lavoisier referred to it as “mephitic air” or azote, from the Greek word ?????? (azotos) meaning “lifeless”.[3] In it, animals died and flames were extinguished. Lavoisier’s name for nitrogen is used in many languages (French, Polish, Russian, etc.) and still remains in English in the common names of many compounds, such as hydrazine and compounds of the azide ion(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/S Battery).

The English word nitrogen (1794) entered the language [4] from the French nitrogène, coined in 1790 by French chemist Jean-Antoine Chaptal (1756–1832), from “nitre” + Fr. gène “producing” (from Gk. -????? means “forming” or “giving birth to.”). The gas had been found in nitric acid. Chaptal’s meaning was that nitrogen gas is the essential part of nitric acid(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/P Battery), in turn formed from saltpetre (potassium nitrate), then known as nitre. This word in the more ancient world originally described sodium salts that did not contain nitrate, and is a cognate of natron.

Nitrogen compounds were well known during the Middle Ages. Alchemists knew nitric acid as aqua fortis (strong water). The mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids was known as aqua regia (royal water), celebrated for its ability to dissolve gold (the king of metals). The earliest military, industrial, and agricultural applications of nitrogen compounds used saltpetre (SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S/S Battery) (sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate), most notably in gunpowder, and later as fertilizer. In 1910, Lord Rayleigh discovered that an electrical discharge in nitrogen gas produced “active nitrogen”, an allotrope considered to be monatomic. The “whirling cloud of brilliant yellow light” produced by his apparatus reacted with quicksilver to produce explosive mercury nitride(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/W Battery).[5]

[edit]Production

Nitrogen gas is an industrial gas produced by the fractional distillation of liquid air, or by mechanical means using gaseous air (i.e., pressurized reverse osmosis membrane or Pressure swing adsorption). Commercial nitrogen is often a byproduct of air-processing for industrial concentration of oxygen for steelmaking and other purposes. When supplied compressed in cylinders it is often called OFN (oxygen-free nitrogen) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/P Battery).[6]

In a chemical laboratory it is prepared by treating an aqueous solution of ammonium chloride with sodium nitrite.

NH4Cl(aq) + NaNO2(aq) ? N2(g) + NaCl(aq) + 2 H2O (l)

Small amounts of impurities NO and HNO3 are also formed in this reaction. The impurities can be removed by passing the gas through aqueous sulfuric acid containing potassium dichromate. Very pure nitrogen can be prepared by the thermal decomposition of barium or sodium azide(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z/S Battery).

2 NaN3 ? 2 Na + 3 N2

Properties

Nitrogen is a nonmetal, with an electronegativity of 3.04. It has five electrons in its outer shell and is, therefore, trivalent in most compounds. The triple bond in molecular nitrogen (N2) is one of the strongest. The resulting difficulty of converting N2 into other compounds, and the ease (and associated high energy release) of converting nitrogen compounds into elemental N2, have dominated the role of nitrogen in both nature and human economic activities(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/W Battery).

At atmospheric pressure molecular nitrogen condenses (liquefies) at 77 K (?195.79 °C) and freezes at 63 K (?210.01 °C)[1] into the beta hexagonal close-packed crystal allotropic form. Below 35.4 K (?237.6 °C) nitrogen assumes the cubic crystal allotropic form (called the alpha-phase). Liquid nitrogen, a fluid resembling water in appearance, but with 80.8% of the density (the density of liquid nitrogen at its boiling point is 0.808 g/mL), is a common cryogen(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/S Battery).

Unstable allotropes of nitrogen consisting of more than two nitrogen atoms have been produced in the laboratory, like N3 and N4.[7] Under extremely high pressures (1.1 million atm) and high temperatures (2000 K), as produced using a diamond anvil cell, nitrogen polymerizes into the single-bonded cubic gauche crystal structure. This structure is similar to that of diamond, and both have extremely strong covalent bonds. N4 is nicknamed “nitrogen diamond.” (SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/W Battery) [8]

Other (as yet unsynthesized) allotropes include hexazine (N6, a benzene analog)[9] and octaazacubane (N8, a cubane analog).[10] The former is predicted to be highly unstable, while the latter is predicted to be kinetically stable, for reasons of orbital symmetry.[11]

[edit]Isotopes

See also: Isotopes of nitrogen

There are two stable isotopes of nitrogen: 14N and 15N. By far the most common is 14N (99.634%), which is produced in the CNO cycle in stars(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/P Battery). Of the ten isotopes produced synthetically, 13N has a half-life of ten minutes and the remaining isotopes have half-lives on the order of seconds or less. Biologically mediated reactions (e.g., assimilation, nitrification, and denitrification) strongly control nitrogen dynamics in the soil. These reactions typically result in 15N enrichment of the substrate and depletion of the product(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S/S Battery).

A small part (0.73%) of the molecular nitrogen in Earth’s atmosphere is the isotopologue 14N15N, and almost all the rest is 14N2.

Radioisotope 16N is the dominant radionuclide in the coolant of pressurized water reactors or boiling water reactors during normal operation. It is produced from 16O (in water) via (n,p) reaction. It has a short half-life of about 7.1 s, but during its decay back to 16O produces high-energy gamma radiation (5 to 7 MeV) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/W Battery).

Because of this, the access to the primary coolant piping in a pressurized water reactor must be restricted during reactor power operation.[12] 16N is one of the main means used to immediately detect even small leaks from the primary coolant to the secondary steam cycle.

In similar fashion, access to any of the steam cycle components in a boiling water reactor nuclear power plant must be restricted during operation(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/S Battery). Condensate from the condenser is typically retained for 10 minutes to allow for decay of the 16N. This eliminates the need to shield and restrict access to any of the feed water piping or pumps.

[edit]Electromagnetic spectrum

Nitrogen discharge (spectrum) tube

Molecular nitrogen (14N2) is largely transparent to infrared and visible radiation because it is a homonuclear molecule and, thus, has no dipole moment to couple to electromagnetic radiation at these wavelengths. Significant absorption occurs at extreme ultraviolet wavelengths(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z/S Battery), beginning around 100 nanometers. This is associated with electronic transitions in the molecule to states in which charge is not distributed evenly between nitrogen atoms. Nitrogen absorption leads to significant absorption of ultraviolet radiation in the Earth’s upper atmosphere and the atmospheres of other planetary bodies. For similar reasons, pure molecular nitrogen lasers typically emit light in the ultraviolet range(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11ZR/S Battery).

Nitrogen also makes a contribution to visible air glow from the Earth’s upper atmosphere, through electron impact excitation followed by emission. This visible blue air glow (seen in the polar aurora and in the re-entry glow of returning spacecraft) typically results not from molecular nitrogen but rather from free nitrogen atoms combining with oxygen to form nitric oxide (NO) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS11S/S Battery).

Nitrogen gas also exhibits scintillation.

[edit]Reactions

Structure of dinitrogen, N2

Structure of [Ru(NH3)5(N2)]2+

In general, nitrogen is unreactive at standard temperature and pressure. N2 reacts spontaneously with few reagents, being resilient to acids and bases as well as oxidants and most reductants. When nitrogen reacts spontaneously with a reagent, the net transformation is often called nitrogen fixation(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11SR/S Battery).

Nitrogen reacts with elemental lithium.[13] Lithium burns in an atmosphere of N2 to give lithium nitride:

6 Li + N2 ? 2 Li3N

Magnesium also burns in nitrogen, forming magnesium nitride.

3 Mg + N2 ? Mg3N2

N2 forms a variety of adducts with transition metals. The first example of a dinitrogen complex is [Ru(NH3)5(N2)]2+ (see figure at right). However, it is interesting to note that the N2 ligand was obtained by the decomposition of hydrazine, and not coordination of free dinitrogen. Such compounds are now numerous, other examples include IrCl(N2)(PPh3)2(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M/S Battery), W(N2)2(Ph2PCH2CH2PPh2)2, and [(?5-C5Me4H)2Zr]2(?2, ?2,?2-N2). These complexes illustrate how N2 might bind to the metal(s) in nitrogenase and the catalyst for the Haber process.[14] A catalytic process to reduce N2 to ammonia with the use of a molybdenum complex in the presence of a proton source was published in 2005(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11MR/S Battery).[13]

The starting point for industrial production of nitrogen compounds is the Haber process, in which nitrogen is fixed by reacting N2 and H2 over an iron(II, III) oxide (Fe3O4) catalyst at about 500 °C and 200 atmospheres pressure. Biological nitrogen fixation in free-living cyanobacteria and in the root nodules of plants also produces ammonia from molecular nitrogen(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L/S Battery). The reaction, which is the source of the bulk of nitrogen in the biosphere, is catalyzed by the nitrogenase enzyme complex that contains Fe and Mo atoms, using energy derived from hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into adenosine diphosphate and inorganic phosphate (?20.5 kJ/mol).

[edit]Occurrence

See also Category: Nitrate minerals

See also Category: Ammonium minerals

Nitrogen is the largest constituent of the Earth’s atmosphere (78.082% by volume of dry air, 75.3% by weight in dry air). However, this high concentration does not reflect nitrogen’s overall low abundance in the makeup of the Earth, from which most of the element escaped by solar evaporation, early in the planet’s formation(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J/S Battery).

Nitrogen is a common element in the universe, and is estimated to be approximately seventh most abundant chemical element by mass in the universe, our galaxy and the solar system. Its occurrence there is thought to be entirely due to synthesis by fusion from carbon and hydrogen in supernovas. In these places it was originally created by fusion processes from carbon and hydrogen in supernovas(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E/S Battery).[15]Molecular nitrogen and nitrogen compounds have been detected in interstellar space by astronomers using the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer.[16]

Due to the volatility of elemental nitrogen and also its common compounds with hydrogen and oxygen, nitrogen and its compounds were driven out of the planetesimals in the early solar system by the heat of the Sun, and in the form of gases, were lost to the rocky planets of the inner solar system(SONY Vaio VGN-NS115N/S Battery). Nitrogen is therefore a relatively rare element on these inner planets, including Earth, as a whole. In this, nitrogen resembles neon, which has a similar abundance in the universe, but is also rare in the inner solar system. Nitrogen is estimated at 30th of the elements in crustal abundance. There exist some relatively uncommon nitrogen minerals, such as saltpetre (potassium nitrate), Chile saltpetre (sodium nitrate) and sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/W Battery). Even these are known mainly as concentrated from evaporative ocean beds, on account of their ready solubility of most naturally-occurring nitrogen compounds in water. A similar pattern occurs with the water solubility of the uncommon light element boron.

However, nitrogen and its compounds occur far more commonly as gases in the atmospheres of planets and moons that are large enough to have atmospheres(SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/S Battery).[17] For example, molecular nitrogen is a major constituent of not only Earth’s atmosphere, but also the Saturnian moon Titan’s thick atmosphere. Also, due to retension by gravity at colder temperatures, nitrogen and its compounds occur in appreciable to trace amounts in planetary atmospheres of the gas giant planets.[18]

Nitrogen is present in all living organisms, in proteins, nucleic acids, and other molecules. It typically makes up around 4% of the dry weight of plant matter(SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/L Battery), and around 3% of the weight of the human body. It is a large component of animal waste (for example, guano), usually in the form of urea, uric acid, ammonium compounds, and derivatives of these nitrogenous products, which are essential nutrients for all plants that cannot fix atmospheric nitrogen.

[edit]Compounds

See also Category: Nitrogen compounds

The main neutral hydride of nitrogen is ammonia (NH3), although hydrazine (N2H4) is also commonly used. Ammonia is more basic than water by 6 orders of magnitude. In solution ammonia forms the ammonium ion (NH+(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L/S Battery)

4). Liquid ammonia (boiling point 240 K) is amphiprotic (displaying either Brønsted-Lowry acidic or basic character) and forms ammonium and the less common amide ions (NH?

2); both amides and nitride (N3?) salts are known, but decompose in water. Singly, doubly, triply and quadruply substituted alkyl compounds of ammonia are called amines (four substitutions, to form commercially and biologically important quaternary amines, results in a positively charged nitrogen, and thus a water-soluble, or at least amphiphilic, compound) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J/S Battery). Larger chains, rings and structures of nitrogen hydrides are also known, but are generally unstable.

Other classes of nitrogen anions (negatively charged ions) are the poisonous azides (N?

3), which are linear and isoelectronic to carbon dioxide, but which bind to important iron-containing enzymes in the body in a manner more resembling cyanide. Another molecule of the same structure is the colorless and relatively inert anesthetic gas Nitrous oxide (dinitrogen monoxide, N2O), also known as laughing gas(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E/S Battery). This is one of a variety of nitrogen oxides that form a family often abbreviated as NOx. Nitric oxide (nitrogen monoxide, NO), is a natural free radical used in signal transduction in both plants and animals, for example, in vasodilation by causing the smooth muscle of blood vessels to relax. The reddish and poisonous nitrogen dioxide NO2 contains an unpaired electron and is an important component of smog(Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG battery). Nitrogen molecules containing unpaired electrons show a tendency to dimerize (thus pairing the electrons), and are, in general, highly reactive. The corresponding acids are nitrous HNO2 and nitric acid HNO3, with the corresponding salts called nitrites and nitrates.

The higher oxides dinitrogen trioxide N2O3, dinitrogen tetroxide N2O4 and dinitrogen pentoxide N2O5, are unstable and explosive, a consequence of the chemical stability of N2. Nearly every hypergolic rocket engine uses N2O4 as the oxidizer(Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG/H battery); their fuels, various forms of hydrazine, are also nitrogen compounds. These engines are extensively used on spacecraft such as the space shuttle and those of the Apollo Program because their propellants are liquids at room temperature and ignition occurs on contact without an ignition system, allowing many precisely controlled burns. Some launch vehicles such as the Titan II and Ariane 1 through 4 also use hypergolic fuels(Sony VAIO VGN-SR55TF/B battery), although the trend is away from such engines for cost and safety reasons. N2O4 is an intermediate in the manufacture of nitric acid HNO3, one of the few acids stronger than hydronium and a fairly strong oxidizing agent.

Nitrogen is notable for the range of explosively unstable compounds that it can produce. Nitrogen triiodide NI3 is an extremely sensitive contact explosive. Nitrocellulose, produced by nitration of cellulose with nitric acid, is also known as guncotton(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF battery). Nitroglycerin, made by nitration of glycerin, is the dangerously unstable explosive ingredient of dynamite. The comparatively stable, but less powerful explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT) is the standard explosive against which the power of nuclear explosions are measured.[19]

Nitrogen can also be found in organic compounds. Common nitrogen functional groups include: amines, amides, nitro groups, imines, and enamines(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF/W battery). The amount of nitrogen in a chemical substance can be determined by the Kjeldahl method.

[edit]Applications

Nitrogen gas has a variety of applications, including serving as an inert replacement for air where oxidation is undesirable;

As a modified atmosphere, pure or mixed with carbon dioxide, to preserve the freshness of packaged or bulk foods (by delaying rancidity and other forms of oxidative damage)

In ordinary incandescent light bulbs as an inexpensive alternative to argon(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B battery).[20]

The production of electronic parts such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits

Dried and pressurized, as a dielectric gas for high-voltage equipment

The manufacturing of stainless steel[21]

Used in military aircraft fuel systems to reduce fire hazard, (see inerting system)

On top of liquid explosives as a safety measure

Filling automotive and aircraft tires[22] due to its inertness and lack of moisture or oxidative qualities, as opposed to air(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/S battery). The difference in N2 content between air and pure N2 is 20%[23][24]

Used as a propellant for draft wine, and as an alternative to or together with carbon dioxide for other beverages.

Nitrogen is commonly used during sample preparation procedures for chemical analysis. It is used to concentrate and reduce the volume of liquid samples. Directing a pressurized stream of nitrogen gas perpendicular to the surface of the liquid allows the solvent to evaporate while leaving the solute(s) and un-evaporated solvent behind(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/P battery).[25]

Nitrogen tanks are also replacing carbon dioxide as the main power source for paintball guns. Nitrogen must be kept at higher pressure than CO2, making N2 tanks heavier and more expensive.

[edit]Nitrogenated beer

Nitrogen can be used instead of carbon dioxide to pressurize kegs of some beers, in particular, stouts and British ales, due to the smaller bubbles it produces, which makes the dispensed beer smoother and headier(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49VN/H battery). A pressure sensitive nitrogen capsule known commonly as a “widget” allows nitrogen charged beers to be packaged in cans and bottles.[26]

A mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide can be used for this purpose as well, to maintain the saturation of beer with carbon dioxide.[27]

[edit]Liquid nitrogen

Air balloon submerged in liquid nitrogen

Main article: Liquid nitrogen

Liquid nitrogen is a cryogenic liquid. At atmospheric pressure, it boils at ?195.8 °C. When insulated in proper containers such as Dewar flasks, it can be transported without much evaporative loss(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D battery).[28]

Like dry ice, the main use of liquid nitrogen is as a refrigerant. Among other things, it is used in the cryopreservation of blood, reproductive cells (sperm and egg), and other biological samples and materials. It is used in the clinical setting in cryotherapy to remove cysts and warts on the skin.[29] It is used in cold traps for certain laboratory equipment and to cool infrared detectors or X-ray detectors(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D/Q battery). It has also been used to cool central processing units and other devices in computers that are overclocked, and that produce more heat than during normal operation.[30]

[edit]Applications of nitrogen compounds

Molecular nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere is relatively non-reactive due to its strong bond, and N2 plays an inert role in the human body, being neither produced nor destroyed. In nature, nitrogen is converted into biologically (and industrially) useful compounds by lightning, and by some living organisms(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D/J battery), notably certain bacteria (i.e., nitrogen fixing bacteria—see Biological role below). Molecular nitrogen is released into the atmosphere in the process of decay, in dead plant and animal tissues.

The ability to combine, or fix, molecular nitrogen is a key feature of modern industrial chemistry, where nitrogen and natural gas are converted into ammonia via the Haber process. Ammonia, in turn, can be used directly (primarily as a fertilizer, and in the synthesis of nitrated fertilizers) (Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J battery),[1] or as a precursor of many other important materials including explosives, largely via the production of nitric acid by the Ostwald process.

The organic and inorganic salts of nitric acid have been important historically as convenient stores of chemical energy. They include important compounds such as potassium nitrate (or saltpeter used in gunpowder) and ammonium nitrate(Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J/J battery), an important fertilizer and explosive (see ANFO). Various other nitrated organic compounds, such as nitroglycerin, trinitrotoluene, and nitrocellulose, are used as explosives and propellants for modern firearms. Nitric acid is used as an oxidizing agent in liquid fueled rockets. Hydrazine and hydrazine derivatives find use as rocket fuels and monopropellants. In most of these compounds(Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J/B battery), the basic instability and tendency to burn or explode is derived from the fact that nitrogen is present as an oxide, and not as the far more stable nitrogen molecule (N2), which is a product of the compounds’ thermal decomposition. When nitrates burn or explode, the formation of the powerful triple bond in the N2 produces most of the energy of the reaction(Sony VAIO VGN-SR46TD/B battery).

Nitrogen is a constituent of molecules in every major drug class in pharmacology and medicine. Nitrous oxide (N2O) was discovered early in the 19th century to be a partial anesthetic, though it was not used as a surgical anesthetic until later. Called “laughing gas”, it was found capable of inducing a state of social disinhibition resembling drunkenness. Other notable nitrogen-containing drugs are drugs derived from plant alkaloids, such as morphine (Sony VAIO VGN-SR46MD/B battery) (there exist many alkaloids known to have pharmacological effects; in some cases, they appear as natural chemical defenses of plants against predation). Drugs that contain nitrogen include all major classes of antibiotics and organic nitrate drugs like nitroglycerin and nitroprusside that regulate blood pressure and heart action by mimicking the action of nitric oxide(Sony VAIO VGN-SR46GD battery).

[edit]Biological role

See also: Nitrogen cycle and Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen is an essential building block of amino and nucleic acids, essential to life on Earth.

Elemental nitrogen in the atmosphere cannot be used directly by either plants or animals, and must be converted to a reduced (or ‘fixed’) state to be useful for higher plants and animals. Precipitation often contains substantial quantities of ammonium and nitrate, thought to result from nitrogen fixation by lightning and other atmospheric electric phenomena(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/W battery).[31] This was first proposed by Liebig in 1827 and later confirmed.[31] However, because ammonium is preferentially retained by the forest canopy relative to atmospheric nitrate, most fixed nitrogen reaches the soil surface under trees as nitrate. Soil nitrate is preferentially assimilated by tree roots relative to soil ammonium(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/P battery).

Specific bacteria (e.g., Rhizobium trifolium) possess nitrogenase enzymes that can fix atmospheric nitrogen (see nitrogen fixation) into a form (ammonium ion) that is chemically useful to higher organisms. This process requires a large amount of energy and anoxic conditions. Such bacteria may live freely in soil (e.g., Azotobacter) but normally exist in a symbiotic relationship in the root nodules of leguminous plants (Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/B battery) (e.g. clover, Trifolium, or soybean plant, Glycine max). Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are also symbiotic with a number of unrelated plant species such as alders (Alnus) spp., lichens, Casuarina, Myrica, liverworts, and Gunnera.[32]

As part of the symbiotic relationship, the plant converts the ‘fixed’ ammonium ion to nitrogen oxides and amino acids to form proteins and other molecules, (e.g., alkaloids). In return for the ‘fixed’ nitrogen, the plant secretes sugars to the symbiotic bacteria(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H battery).[32] Legumes maintain an anaerobic (oxygen free) environment for their nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

Plants are able to assimilate nitrogen directly in the form of nitrates that may be present in soil from natural mineral deposits, artificial fertilizers, animal waste, or organic decay (as the product of bacteria, but not bacteria specifically associated with the plant). Nitrates absorbed in this fashion are converted to nitrites by the enzyme nitrate reductase, and then converted to ammonia by another enzyme called nitrite reductase(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/P battery).[32]

Nitrogen compounds are basic building blocks in animal biology as well. Animals use nitrogen-containing amino acids from plant sources as starting materials for all nitrogen-compound animal biochemistry, including the manufacture of proteins and nucleic acids. Plant-feeding insects are dependent on nitrogen in their diet, such that varying the amount of nitrogen fertilizer applied to a plant can affect the reproduction rate of insects feeding on fertilized plants(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/N battery).[33]

Soluble nitrate is an important limiting factor in the growth of certain bacteria in ocean waters.[34] In many places in the world, artificial fertilizers applied to crop-lands to increase yields result in run-off delivery of soluble nitrogen to oceans at river mouths. This process can result in eutrophication of the water, as nitrogen-driven bacterial growth depletes water oxygen to the point that all higher organisms die(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/B battery). Well-known “dead zone” areas in the U.S. Gulf Coast and the Black Sea are due to this important polluting process.

Many saltwater fish manufacture large amounts of trimethylamine oxide to protect them from the high osmotic effects of their environment; conversion of this compound to dimethylamine is responsible for the early odor in unfresh saltwater fish.[35] In animals, free radical nitric oxide (NO) (derived from an amino acid), serves as an important regulatory molecule for circulation(Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/W battery).[34]

Animal metabolism of NO results in production of nitrite. Animal metabolism of nitrogen in proteins, in general, results in excretion of urea, while animal metabolism of nucleic acids results in excretion of urea and uric acid. The characteristic odor of animal flesh decay is caused by the creation of long-chain, nitrogen-containing amines, such as putrescine and cadaverine(Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/S battery), which are breakdown products of the amino acids ornithine and lysine, respectively, in decaying proteins.[36]

Decay of organisms and their waste products may produce small amounts of nitrate, but most decay eventually returns nitrogen content to the atmosphere, as molecular nitrogen. The circulation of nitrogen from atmosphere, to organic compounds, then back to the atmosphere, is referred to as the nitrogen cycle(Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/P battery).[32]

[edit]Safety

Rapid release of nitrogen gas into an enclosed space can displace oxygen, and therefore represents an asphyxiation hazard. This may happen with few warning symptoms, since the human carotid body is a relatively slow and a poor low-oxygen (hypoxia) sensing system.[37] An example occurred shortly before the launch of the first Space Shuttle mission in 1981(Sony VAIO VGN-SR3CW/B battery), when two technicians lost consciousness (and one of them died) after they walked into a space located in the Shuttle’s Mobile Launcher Platform that was pressurized with pure nitrogen as a precaution against fire. The technicians would have been able to exit the room if they had experienced early symptoms from nitrogen-breathing(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39XN/S battery).

When inhaled at high partial pressures (more than about 4 bar, encountered at depths below about 30 m in scuba diving), nitrogen begins to act as an anesthetic agent. It can cause nitrogen narcosis, a temporary semi-anesthetized state of mental impairment similar to that caused by nitrous oxide(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39VN/S battery).

Nitrogen also dissolves in the bloodstream and body fats. Rapid decompression (in particular, in the case of divers ascending too quickly, or astronauts decompressing too quickly from cabin pressure to spacesuit pressure) can lead to a potentially fatal condition called decompression sickness (formerly known as caisson sickness or the bends), when nitrogen bubbles form in the bloodstream, nerves, joints, and other sensitive or vital areas. (Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D battery)Other “inert” gases (those gases other than carbon dioxide and oxygen) cause the same effects from bubbles composed of them, so replacement of nitrogen in breathing gases may prevent nitrogen narcosis, but does not prevent decompression sickness.[42]

Direct skin contact with liquid nitrogen will cause severe frostbite (cryogenic “burns”). This may happen almost instantly on contact(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D/Q battery), or after a second or more, depending on the form of liquid nitrogen. Bulk liquid nitrogen causes less rapid freezing than a spray of nitrogen mist (such as is used to freeze certain skin growths in the practice of dermatology). The extra surface area provided by nitrogen-soaked materials is also important, with soaked clothing or cotton causing far more rapid damage than a spill of direct liquid to skin(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D/J battery). Full “contact” between naked skin and large collected-droplets or pools of liquid nitrogen may be prevented for a second or two, by a layer of insulating gas from the Leidenfrost effect. This may give the skin a second of protection from nitrogen bulk liquid. However, liquid nitrogen applied to skin in mists, and on fabrics, bypasses this effect, and causes local frostbite immediately(Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/Q battery).

Oxygen sensors are sometimes used as a safety precaution when working with liquid nitrogen to alert workers of gas spills into a confined space.

Water covers 70.9% of the Earth’s surface,[4] and is vital for all known forms of life.[5] On Earth, 96.5% of the planet’s water is found in oceans, 1.7% in groundwater, 1.7% in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland, a small fraction in other large water bodies, and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H/Z battery (formed of solid and liquid water particles suspended in air), and precipitation.[6][7] Only 2.5% of the Earth’s water is freshwater, and 98.8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0.3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, and an even smaller amount of the Earth’s freshwater (0.003%) is contained within biological bodies and manufactured productsSony VAIO VGN-CS33H/B battery.[6]

Water on Earth moves continually through the hydrological cycle of evaporation and transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land.

Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms. Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in almost every part of the worldSony VAIO VGN-CS31Z/Q battery, but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation.[8] There is a clear correlation between access to safe water and GDP per capita.[9] However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability.[10] A recent report (November 2009) suggests that by 2030Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/W battery, in some developing regions of the world, water demand will exceed supply by 50%.[11] Water plays an important role in the world economy, as it functions as a solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances and facilitates industrial cooling and transportation. Approximately 70% of the fresh water used by humans goes to agriculture.[12]

Chemical and physical properties

Main articles: Water (properties), Water (data page), and Water model

Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of waterSony VAIO VGN-CS31S/V battery

Impact from a water drop causes an upward “rebound” jet surrounded by circular capillary waves.

Snowflakes by Wilson Bentley, 1902

Dew drops adhering to a spider web

Capillary action of water compared to mercury

Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H2O: one molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom.

Water appears in nature in all three common states of matter and may take many different forms on Earth: water vapor and clouds in the sky; seawater in the oceans; icebergs in the polar oceans; glaciers and rivers in the mountains; and the liquid in aquifers in the groundSony VAIO VGN-CS31S/T battery.

At high temperatures and pressures, such as in the interior of giant planets, it is argued that water exists as ionic water in which the molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and at even higher pressures as superionic water in which the oxygen crystallises but the hydrogen ions float around freely within the oxygen latticeSony VAIO VGN-CS31S/R battery.[13]

The major chemical and physical properties of water are:

Water is a liquid at standard temperature and pressure. It is tasteless and odorless. The intrinsic colour of water and ice is a very slight blue hue, although both appear colorless in small quantities. Water vapour is essentially invisible as a gas.[14]

Water is transparent in the visible electromagnetic spectrum. Thus aquatic plants can live in water because sunlight can reach them. Infrared light is strongly absorbed by the hydrogen-oxygen or OH bondsSony VAIO VGN-CS31S/P battery.

Since the water molecule is not linear and the oxygen atom has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen atoms, it carries a slight negative charge, whereas the hydrogen atoms are slightly positive. As a result, water is a polar molecule with an electrical dipole moment. Water also can form an unusually large number of intermolecular hydrogen bonds (four) for a molecule of its sizeSony VAIO VGN-CS28 battery. These factors lead to strong attractive forces between molecules of water, giving rise to water’s high surface tension[15] and capillary forces. The capillary action refers to the tendency of water to move up a narrow tube against the force of gravity. This property is relied upon by all vascular plants, such as treesSony VAIO VGN-CS28/Q battery.[16]

Water is a good solvent and is often referred to as the universal solvent. Substances that dissolve in water, e.g., salts, sugars, acids, alkalis, and some gases – especially oxygen, carbon dioxide (carbonation) are known as hydrophilic (water-loving) substances, while those that do not mix well with water (e.g., fats and oils), are known as hydrophobic (water-fearing) substancesSony VAIO VGN-CS27 battery.

All the major components in cells (proteins, DNA and polysaccharides) are also dissolved in water.

Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, but this increases significantly with the dissolution of a small amount of ionic material such as sodium chloride.

The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on the barometric pressure. For example, on the top of Mt. Everest water boils at 68 °C (154 °F) Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/W battery, compared to 100 °C (212 °F) at sea level. Conversely, water deep in the ocean near geothermal vents can reach temperatures of hundreds of degrees and remain liquid.

At 4181.3 J/(kg·K), water has a high specific heat capacity, as well as a high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ·mol?1), both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its moleculesSony VAIO VGN-CS27/R battery. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth’s climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature.

The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98 °C (39.16 °F).[17] It has the anomalous property of becoming less dense, not more, when it is cooled down to its solid form, ice. It expands to occupy 9% greater volume in this solid state, which accounts for the fact of ice floating on liquid water, as in icebergsSony VAIO VGN-CS27/P battery.

Its density is 1,000 kg/m3 (62.428 lb/cu ft or 8.3454 lb/US gal) liquid (at 4 °C; ice has a density of 917 kg/m3).[18]

ADR label for transporting goods dangerously reactive with water

Water is miscible with many liquids, such as ethanol, in all proportions, forming a single homogeneous liquid. On the other hand, water and most oils are immiscible, usually forming layers according to increasing density from the top. As a gas, water vapor is completely miscible with airSony VAIO VGN-CS27/C battery.

Water forms an azeotrope with many other solvents.

Water can be split by electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen.

As an oxide of hydrogen, water is formed when hydrogen or hydrogen-containing compounds burn or react with oxygen or oxygen-containing compounds. Water is not a fuel, it is an end-product of the combustion of hydrogen. The energy required to split water into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis or any other means is greater than the energy that can be collected when the hydrogen and oxygen recombineSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/W battery.[19]

Elements which are more electropositive than hydrogen such as lithium, sodium, calcium, potassium and caesium displace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides. Being a flammable gas, the hydrogen given off is dangerous and the reaction of water with the more electropositive of these elements may be violently explosiveSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/V battery.

Taste and odor

Water can dissolve many different substances, giving it varying tastes and odors. Humans and other animals have developed senses that enable them to evaluate the potability of water by avoiding water that is too salty or putrid. The taste of spring water and mineral water, often advertised in marketing of consumer products, derives from the minerals dissolved in itSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/T battery. However, pure H2O is tasteless and odorless. The advertised purity of spring and mineral water refers to absence of toxins, pollutants and microbes, not the absence of naturally occurring minerals.

Distribution in nature

In the universe

Much of the universe’s water is produced as a byproduct of star formation. When stars are born, their birth is accompanied by a strong outward wind of gas and dust. When this outflow of material eventually impacts the surrounding gasSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/R battery, the shock waves that are created compress and heat the gas. The water observed is quickly produced in this warm dense gas.[20]

On 22 July 2011, a report described the discovery of a gigantic cloud of water vapor, containing “140 trillion times more water than all of Earth’s oceans combined,” around a quasar located 12 billion light years from Earth. According to the researchers, the “discovery shows that water has been prevalent in the universe for nearly its entire existence.” Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/Q battery

Water has been detected in interstellar clouds within our galaxy, the Milky Way. Water probably exists in abundance in other galaxies, too, because its components, hydrogen and oxygen, are among the most abundant elements in the universe. Interstellar clouds eventually condense into solar nebulae and solar systems such as oursSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/P battery.

Water vapor is present in

Atmosphere of Mercury: 3.4%, and large amounts of water in Mercury’s exosphere[23]

Atmosphere of Venus: 0.002%

Earth’s atmosphere: ~0.40% over full atmosphere, typically 1–4% at surface

Atmosphere of Mars: 0.03%

Atmosphere of Jupiter: 0.0004%

Atmosphere of Saturn – in ices only

Enceladus (moon of Saturn): 91%

exoplanets known as HD 189733 b[24] and HD 209458 b.[25]

Liquid water is present on

Earth: 71% of surface

Europa: 100 km deep subsurface ocean

Strong evidence suggests that liquid water is present just under the surface of Saturn’s moon EnceladusSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/C battery.

Water ice is present on

Earth – mainly as ice sheets

polar ice caps on Mars

Moon

Titan

Europa

Saturn’s rings[26]

Enceladus

Pluto and Charon[26]

Comets and comet source populations (Kuiper belt and Oort cloud objects).

Water ice may be present on Ceres and Tethys. Water and other volatiles probably comprise much of the internal structures of Uranus and Neptune and the water in the deeper layers may be in the form of ionic water in which the molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and deeper down as superionic water in which the oxygen crystallises but the hydrogen ions float around freely within the oxygen latticeSony VAIO VGN-CS25H battery.[13]

Some of the Moon’s minerals contain water molecules. For instance, in 2008 a laboratory device which ejects and identifies particles found small amounts of the compound in the inside of volcanic rock brought from Moon to Earth by the Apollo 15 crew in 1971.[27] NASA reported the detection of water molecules by NASA’s Moon Mineralogy Mapper aboard the Indian Space Research Organization’s Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft in September 2009Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/W battery.[28]

Water and habitable zone

The existence of liquid water, and to a lesser extent its gaseous and solid forms, on Earth are vital to the existence of life on Earth as we know it. The Earth is located in the habitable zone of the solar system; if it were slightly closer to or farther from the Sun (about 5%, or about 8 million kilometers), the conditions which allow the three forms to be present simultaneously would be far less likely to exist. Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/R battery

Earth’s gravity allows it to hold an atmosphere. Water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere provide a temperature buffer (greenhouse effect) which helps maintain a relatively steady surface temperature. If Earth were smaller, a thinner atmosphere would allow temperature extremes, thus preventing the accumulation of water except in polar ice caps (as on Mars) Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/Q battery.

The surface temperature of Earth has been relatively constant through geologic time despite varying levels of incoming solar radiation (insolation), indicating that a dynamic process governs Earth’s temperature via a combination of greenhouse gases and surface or atmospheric albedo. This proposal is known as the Gaia hypothesisSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/P battery.

The state of water on a planet depends on ambient pressure, which is determined by the planet’s gravity. If a planet is sufficiently massive, the water on it may be solid even at high temperatures, because of the high pressure caused by gravity, as it was observed on exoplanets Gliese 436 b[31] and GJ 1214 bSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/C battery.[32]

There are various theories about origin of water on Earth.

On Earth

Main articles: Hydrology and Water distribution on Earth

A graphical distribution of the locations of water on Earth.

Water covers 71% of the Earth’s surface; the oceans contain 96.5% of the Earth’s water. The Antarctic ice sheet, which contains 61% of all fresh water on Earth, is visible at the bottom. Condensed atmospheric water can be seen as clouds, contributing to the Earth’s albedoSony VAIO VGN-CS23T/W battery.

Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the Earth. The study of the distribution of water is hydrography. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, of glaciers is glaciology, of inland waters is limnology and distribution of oceans is oceanography. Ecological processes with hydrology are in focus of ecohydrologySony VAIO VGN-CS23T/Q battery.

The collective mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planet is called the hydrosphere. Earth’s approximate water volume (the total water supply of the world) is 1,338,000,000 km3 (321,000,000 mi3).[6]

Liquid water is found in bodies of water, such as an ocean, sea, lake, river, stream, canal, pond, or puddle. The majority of water on Earth is sea water. Water is also present in the atmosphere in solid, liquid, and vapor states. It also exists as groundwater in aquifersSony VAIO VGN-CS23H battery.

Water is important in many geological processes. Groundwater is present in most rocks, and the pressure of this groundwater affects patterns of faulting. Water in the mantle is responsible for the melt that produces volcanoes at subduction zones. On the surface of the Earth, water is important in both chemical and physical weathering processesSony VAIO VGN-CS23H/S battery. Water and, to a lesser but still significant extent, ice, are also responsible for a large amount of sediment transport that occurs on the surface of the earth. Deposition of transported sediment forms many types of sedimentary rocks, which make up the geologic record of Earth historySony VAIO VGN-CS23H/B battery.

Water cycle

Main article: Water cycle

Water cycle

The water cycle (known scientifically as the hydrologic cycle) refers to the continuous exchange of water within the hydrosphere, between the atmosphere, soil water, surface water, groundwater, and plants.

Water moves perpetually through each of these regions in the water cycle consisting of following transfer processesSony VAIO VGN-CS23G battery:

evaporation from oceans and other water bodies into the air and transpiration from land plants and animals into air.

precipitation, from water vapor condensing from the air and falling to earth or ocean.

runoff from the land usually reaching the sea.

Most water vapor over the oceans returns to the oceans, but winds carry water vapor over land at the same rate as runoff into the sea, about 47 Tt per year. Over land, evaporation and transpiration contribute another 72 Tt per yearSony VAIO VGN-CS23G/W battery. Precipitation, at a rate of 119 Tt per year over land, has several forms: most commonly rain, snow, and hail, with some contribution from fog and dew.[33] Condensed water in the air may also refract sunlight to produce rainbows.

Water runoff often collects over watersheds flowing into rivers. A mathematical model used to simulate river or stream flow and calculate water quality parameters is hydrological transport model. Some of water is diverted to irrigation for agricultureSony VAIO VGN-CS23G/Q battery. Rivers and seas offer opportunity for travel and commerce. Through erosion, runoff shapes the environment creating river valleys and deltas which provide rich soil and level ground for the establishment of population centers. A flood occurs when an area of land, usually low-lying, is covered with water. It is when a river overflows its banks or flood from the seaSony VAIO VGN-CS23G/P battery. A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. This occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation.

Fresh water storage

The Bay of Fundy at high tide (left) and low tide (right)

Main article: Water resources

Some runoff water is trapped for periods of time, for example in lakes. At high altitude, during winter, and in the far north and south, snow collects in ice caps, snow pack and glaciers. Water also infiltrates the ground and goes into aquifersSony VAIO VGN-CS21Z/Q battery. This groundwater later flows back to the surface in springs, or more spectacularly in hot springs and geysers. Groundwater is also extracted artificially in wells. This water storage is important, since clean, fresh water is essential to human and other land-based life. In many parts of the world, it is in short supplySony VAIO VGN-CS21S/W battery.

Sea water

Sea water contains about 3.5% salt on average, plus smaller amounts of other substances. The physical properties of sea water differ from fresh water in some important respects. It freezes at a lower temperature (about ?1.9 °C) and its density increases with decreasing temperature to the freezing point, instead of reaching maximum density at a temperature above freezingSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/V battery. The salinity of water in major seas varies from about 0.7% in the Baltic Sea to 4.0% in the Red Sea.

Tides

Tides are the cyclic rising and falling of local sea levels caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun acting on the oceans. Tides cause changes in the depth of the marine and estuarine water bodies and produce oscillating currents known as tidal streamsSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/T battery. The changing tide produced at a given location is the result of the changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth coupled with the effects of Earth rotation and the local bathymetry. The strip of seashore that is submerged at high tide and exposed at low tide, the intertidal zone, is an important ecological product of ocean tidesSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/R battery.

Effects on life

An oasis is an isolated water source with vegetation in a desert

Overview of photosynthesis and respiration. Water (at right), together with carbon dioxide (CO2), form oxygen and organic compounds (at left), which can be respired to water and (CO2).

From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of life that set it apart from other substancesSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/P battery. It carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allow replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water is vital both as a solvent in which many of the body’s solutes dissolve and as an essential part of many metabolic processes within the body. Metabolism is the sum total of anabolism and catabolismSony VAIO VGN-CS215J/R battery. In anabolism, water is removed from molecules (through energy requiring enzymatic chemical reactions) in order to grow larger molecules (e.g. starches, triglycerides and proteins for storage of fuels and information). In catabolism, water is used to break bonds in order to generate smaller molecules (e.g. glucose, fatty acids and amino acids to be used for fuels for energy use or other purposes) Sony VAIO VGN-CS215J/Q battery. Without water, these particular metabolic processes could not exist.

Water is fundamental to photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells use the sun’s energy to split off water’s hydrogen from oxygen. Hydrogen is combined with CO2 (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen. All living cells use such fuels and oxidize the hydrogen and carbon to capture the sun’s energy and reform water and CO2 in the process (cellular respiration) Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/W battery.

Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. An acid, a hydrogen ion (H+, that is, a proton) donor, can be neutralized by a base, a proton acceptor such as hydroxide ion (OH?) to form water. Water is considered to be neutral, with a pH (the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids have pH values less than 7 while bases have values greater than 7Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/R battery.

Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef

Aquatic life forms

Main articles: Hydrobiology and Aquatic plant

Some marine diatoms – a key phytoplankton group

Earth surface waters are filled with life. The earliest life forms appeared in water; nearly all fish live exclusively in water, and there are many types of marine mammals, such as dolphins and whales. Some kinds of animals, such as amphibians, spend portions of their lives in water and portions on landSony VAIO VGN-CS19/Q battery. Plants such as kelp and algae grow in the water and are the basis for some underwater ecosystems. Plankton is generally the foundation of the ocean food chain.

Aquatic vertebrates must obtain oxygen to survive, and they do so in various ways. Fish have gills instead of lungs, although some species of fish, such as the lungfish, have both. Marine mammals, such as dolphins, whales, otters, and seals need to surface periodically to breathe airSony VAIO VGN-CS19/P battery. Some amphibians are able to absorb oxygen through their skin. Invertebrates exhibit a wide range of modifications to survive in poorly oxygenated waters including breathing tubes (see insect and mollusc siphons) and gills (Carcinus). However as invertebrate life evolved in an aquatic habitat most have little or no specialisation for respiration in waterSony VAIO VGN-CS17H/W battery.

Effects on human civilization

Water fountain

Civilization has historically flourished around rivers and major waterways; Mesopotamia, the so-called cradle of civilization, was situated between the major rivers Tigris and Euphrates; the ancient society of the Egyptians depended entirely upon the Nile. Large metropolises like Rotterdam, London, Montreal, Paris, New York City, Buenos Aires, ShanghaiSony VAIO VGN-CS17H/Q battery, Tokyo, Chicago, and Hong Kong owe their success in part to their easy accessibility via water and the resultant expansion of trade. Islands with safe water ports, like Singapore, have flourished for the same reason. In places such as North Africa and the Middle East, where water is more scarce, access to clean drinking water was and is a major factor in human developmentSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/W battery.

Health and pollution

Environmental Science Program, Iowa State University student sampling water.

Water fit for human consumption is called drinking water or potable water. Water that is not potable may be made potable by filtration or distillation, or by a range of other methods.

Water that is not fit for drinking but is not harmful for humans when used for swimming or bathing is called by various names other than potable or drinking waterSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/T battery, and is sometimes called safe water, or “safe for bathing”. Chlorine is a skin and mucous membrane irritant that is used to make water safe for bathing or drinking. Its use is highly technical and is usually monitored by government regulations (typically 1 part per million (ppm) for drinking water, and 1–2 ppm of chlorine not yet reacted with impurities for bathing water) Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/R battery. Water for bathing may be maintained in satisfactory microbiological condition using chemical disinfectants such as chlorine or ozone or by the use of ultraviolet light.

In the USA, non-potable forms of wastewater generated by humans may be referred to as greywater, which is treatable and thus easily able to be made potable again, and blackwater, which generally contains sewage and other forms of waste which require further treatment in order to be made reusableSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/Q battery. Greywater composes 50–80% of residential wastewater generated by a household’s sanitation equipment (sinks, showers and kitchen runoff, but not toilets, which generate blackwater.) These terms may have different meanings in other countries and cultures.

This natural resource is becoming scarcer in certain places, and its availability is a major social and economic concernSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/P battery. Currently, about a billion people around the world routinely drink unhealthy water. Most countries accepted the goal of halving by 2015 the number of people worldwide who do not have access to safe water and sanitation during the 2003 G8 Evian summit.[34] Even if this difficult goal is met, it will still leave more than an estimated half a billion people without access to safe drinking water and over a billion without access to adequate sanitationSony VAIO VGN-CS13T/W battery. Poor water quality and bad sanitation are deadly; some five million deaths a year are caused by polluted drinking water. The World Health Organization estimates that safe water could prevent 1.4 million child deaths from diarrhea each year.[35] Water, however, is not a finite resource, but rather re-circulated as potable water in precipitation in quantities many degrees of magnitude higher than human consumptionSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/W battery. Therefore, it is the relatively small quantity of water in reserve in the earth (about 1% of our drinking water supply, which is replenished in aquifers around every 1 to 10 years), that is a non-renewable resource, and it is, rather, the distribution of potable and irrigation water which is scarce, rather than the actual amount of it that exists on the earthSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/R battery. Water-poor countries use importation of goods as the primary method of importing water (to leave enough for local human consumption), since the manufacturing process uses around 10 to 100 times products’ masses in water.

In the developing world, 90% of all wastewater still goes untreated into local rivers and streams. Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/Q battery Some 50 countries, with roughly a third of the world’s population, also suffer from medium or high water stress, and 17 of these extract more water annually than is recharged through their natural water cycles.[37] The strain not only affects surface freshwater bodies like rivers and lakes, but it also degrades groundwater resourcesSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/P battery.

Human uses

Further information: Water supply

Agriculture

Irrigation of field crops

The most important use of water in agriculture is for irrigation, which is a key component to produce enough food. Irrigation takes up to 90% of water withdrawn in some developing countries[38] and significant proportions in more economically developed countries (United States, 30% of freshwater usage is for irrigation) Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/T battery.[39] It takes around 3,000 litres of water, converted from liquid to vapour, to produce enough food to satisfy one person’s daily dietary need. This is a considerable amount, when compared to that required for drinking, which is between two and five litres. To produce food for the 6.5 billion or so people who inhabit the planet today requires the water that would fill a canal ten metres deepSony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R battery, 100 metres wide and 7.1 million kilometres long – that’s enough to circle the globe 180 times.

Fifty years ago, the common perception was that water was an infinite resource. At this time, there were fewer than half the current number of people on the planet. People were not as wealthy as today, consumed fewer calories and ate less meat, so less water was needed to produce their foodSony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W battery. They required a third of the volume of water we presently take from rivers. Today, the competition for the fixed amount of water resources is much more intense, giving rise to the concept of peak water.[40] This is because there are now nearly seven billion people on the planet, their consumption of water-thirsty meat and vegetables is rising, and there is increasing competition for water from industrySony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q battery, urbanisation and biofuel crops. In future, even more water will be needed to produce food because the Earth’s population is forecast to rise to 9 billion by 2050.[41] An additional 2.5 or 3 billion people, choosing to eat fewer cereals and more meat and vegetables could add an additional five million kilometres to the virtual canal mentioned aboveSony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P battery.

An assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by the International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to see if the world had sufficient water to provide food for its growing population.[42] It assessed the current availability of water for agriculture on a global scale and mapped out locations suffering from water scarcity(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery). It found that a fifth of the world’s people, more than 1.2 billion, live in areas of physical water scarcity, where there is not enough water to meet all demands. A further 1.6 billion people live in areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where the lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity make it impossible for authorities to satisfy the demand for water(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B battery). The report found that it would be possible to produce the food required in future, but that continuation of today’s food production and environmental trends would lead to crises in many parts of the world. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery).[43]

As a scientific standard

On 7 April 1795, the gram was defined in France to be equal to “the absolute weight of a volume of pure water equal to a cube of one hundredth of a meter, and to the temperature of the melting ice.”[44] For practical purposes though, a metallic reference standard was required, one thousand times more massive, the kilogram(Sony VAIO VGN-AW170C battery). Work was therefore commissioned to determine precisely the mass of one liter of water. In spite of the fact that the decreed definition of the gram specified water at 0 °C — a highly reproducible temperature — the scientists chose to redefine the standard and to perform their measurements at the temperature of highest water density, which was measured at the time as 4 °C (39 °F). (Sony VAIO VGN-AW19/Q battery)

The Kelvin temperature scale of the SI system is based on the triple point of water, defined as exactly 273.16 K or 0.01 °C. The scale is an absolute temperature scale with the same increment as the Celsius temperature scale, which was originally defined according the boiling point (set to 100 °C) and melting point (set to 0 °C) of water(Sony VAIO VGN-AW19 battery).

Natural water consists mainly of the isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but there is also small quantity of heavier isotopes such as hydrogen-2 (deuterium). The amount of deuterium oxides or heavy water is very small, but it still affects the properties of water. Water from rivers and lakes tends to contain less deuterium than seawater. Therefore, standard water is defined in the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21M/H battery).

For drinking

Main article: Drinking water

A young girl drinking bottled water

Water quality: fraction of population using improved water sources by country

The human body contains from 55% to 78% water, depending on body size.[46] To function properly, the body requires between one and seven liters of water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this is ingested through foods or beverages other than drinking straight water(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21S/B battery). It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people, though most advocates agree that approximately 2 liters (6 to 7 glasses) of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration.[47] Medical literature favors a lower consumption, typically 1 liter of water for an average male, excluding extra requirements due to fluid loss from exercise or warm weather(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21VY/Q battery).[48] For those who have healthy kidneys, it is rather difficult to drink too much water, but (especially in warm humid weather and while exercising) it is dangerous to drink too little. People can drink far more water than necessary while exercising, however, putting them at risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), which can be fatal. (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21XY/Q battery) The popular claim that “a person should consume eight glasses of water per day” seems to have no real basis in science.[51] Similar misconceptions concerning the effect of water on weight loss and constipation have also been dispelled.[52]

Hazard symbol for non-potable water

An original recommendation for water intake in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the United States National Research Council read: “An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21Z/B battery). Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods.”[53] The latest dietary reference intake report by the United States National Research Council in general recommended (including food sources): 3.7 liters for men and 2.7 liters of water total for women.[54] Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need additional fluids to stay hydrated. The Institute of Medicine (U.S.) recommends that(Sony VAIO VGN-AW230J/H battery), on average, men consume 3.0 liters and women 2.2 liters; pregnant women should increase intake to 2.4 liters (10 cups) and breastfeeding women should get 3 liters (12 cups), since an especially large amount of fluid is lost during nursing.[55] Also noted is that normally, about 20% of water intake comes from food, while the rest comes from drinking water and beverages (caffeinated included) (Sony VAIO VGN-AW235J/B battery). Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; through urine and feces, through sweating, and by exhalation of water vapor in the breath. With physical exertion and heat exposure, water loss will increase and daily fluid needs may increase as well.

Humans require water with few impurities. Common impurities include metal salts and oxides, including copper, iron, calcium and lead,[56] and/or harmful bacteria(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31M/H battery), such as Vibrio. Some solutes are acceptable and even desirable for taste enhancement and to provide needed electrolytes.[57]

The single largest (by volume) freshwater resource suitable for drinking is Lake Baikal in Siberia.[58]

Washing

The propensity of water to form solutions and emulsions is useful in various washing processes. Many industrial processes rely on reactions using chemicals dissolved in water, suspension of solids in water slurries or using water to dissolve and extract substances. Washing is also an important component of several aspects of personal body hygiene(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31S/B battery).

Transportation

The use of water for transportation of materials through rivers and canals as well as the international shipping lanes is an important part of the world economy.

Chemical uses

Water is widely used in chemical reactions as a solvent or reactant and less commonly as a solute or catalyst. In inorganic reactions, water is a common solvent, dissolving many ionic compounds. In organic reactions, it is not usually used as a reaction solvent(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31XY/Q battery), because it does not dissolve the reactants well and is amphoteric (acidic and basic) and nucleophilic. Nevertheless, these properties are sometimes desirable. Also, acceleration of Diels-Alder reactions by water has been observed. Supercritical water has recently been a topic of research. Oxygen-saturated supercritical water combusts organic pollutants efficiently(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M Battery).

Heat exchange

Water and steam are used as heat transfer fluids in diverse heat exchange systems, due to its availability and high heat capacity, both as a coolant and for heating. Cool water may even be naturally available from a lake or the sea. Condensing steam is a particularly efficient heating fluid because of the large heat of vaporization(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S Battery). A disadvantage is that water and steam are somewhat corrosive. In almost all electric power stations, water is the coolant, which vaporizes and drives steam turbines to drive generators. In the U.S., cooling power plants is the largest use of water.[39]

In the nuclear power industry, water can also be used as a neutron moderator. In most nuclear reactors, water is both a coolant and a moderator(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M Battery). This provides something of a passive safety measure, as removing the water from the reactor also slows the nuclear reaction down – however other methods are favored for stopping a reaction and it is preferred to keep the nuclear core covered with water so as to ensure adequate cooling.

Fire extinction(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z Battery)

Water is used for fighting wildfires.

Water has a high heat of vaporization and is relatively inert, which makes it a good fire extinguishing fluid. The evaporation of water carries heat away from the fire. It is dangerous to use water on fires involving oils and organic solvents, because many organic materials float on water and the water tends to spread the burning liquid(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z Battery).

Use of water in fire fighting should also take into account the hazards of a steam explosion, which may occur when water is used on very hot fires in confined spaces, and of a hydrogen explosion, when substances which react with water, such as certain metals or hot carbon such as coal, charcoal, coke graphite, decompose the water, producing water gas(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M Battery).

The power of such explosions was seen in the Chernobyl disaster, although the water involved did not come from fire-fighting at that time but the reactor’s own water cooling system. A steam explosion occurred when the extreme overheating of the core caused water to flash into steam. A hydrogen explosion may have occurred as a result of reaction between steam and hot zirconium(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S Battery).

Recreation

Grand Anse Beach, St. George’s, Grenada, West Indies, often reported as one of the top 10 beaches in the world.

Main article: Water sport (recreation)

Humans use water for many recreational purposes, as well as for exercising and for sports. Some of these include swimming, waterskiing, boating, surfing and diving. In addition, some sports, like ice hockey and ice skating, are played on ice(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S Battery). Lakesides, beaches and water parks are popular places for people to go to relax and enjoy recreation. Many find the sound and appearance of flowing water to be calming, and fountains and other water features are popular decorations. Some keep fish and other life in aquariums or ponds for show, fun, and companionship. Humans also use water for snow sports i.e. skiing, sledding, snowmobiling or snowboarding, which requires the water to be frozen(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M Battery).

Water industry

A water-carrier in India, 1882. In many places where running water is not available, water has to be transported by people.

A manual water pump in China

Water purification facility

The water industry provides drinking water and wastewater services (including sewage treatment) to households and industry. Water supply facilities include water wells cisterns for rainwater harvesting, water supply network, water purification facilities, water tanks, water towers, water pipes including old aqueducts. Atmospheric water generators are in development(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z Battery).

Drinking water is often collected at springs, extracted from artificial borings (wells) in the ground, or pumped from lakes and rivers. Building more wells in adequate places is thus a possible way to produce more water, assuming the aquifers can supply an adequate flow. Other water sources include rainwater collection(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M Battery). Water may require purification for human consumption. This may involve removal of undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes. Popular methods are filtering with sand which only removes undissolved material, while chlorination and boiling kill harmful microbes. Distillation does all three functions. More advanced techniques exist, such as reverse osmosis(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L Battery). Desalination of abundant seawater is a more expensive solution used in coastal arid climates.

The distribution of drinking water is done through municipal water systems, tanker delivery or as bottled water. Governments in many countries have programs to distribute water to the needy at no charge.

Reducing usage by using drinking (potable) water only for human consumption is another option. In some cities such as Hong Kong, sea water is extensively used for flushing toilets citywide in order to conserve fresh water resources(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J Battery).

Polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extent that a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the polluter. Like other types of pollution, this does not enter standard accounting of market costs, being conceived as externalities for which the market cannot account(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery). Thus other people pay the price of water pollution, while the private firms’ profits are not redistributed to the local population victim of this pollution. Pharmaceuticals consumed by humans often end up in the waterways and can have detrimental effects on aquatic life if they bioaccumulate and if they are not biodegradable.

Wastewater facilities are storm sewers and wastewater treatment plants. Another way to remove pollution from surface runoff water is bioswale(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery).

Industrial applications

Water is used in power generation. Hydroelectricity is electricity obtained from hydropower. Hydroelectric power comes from water driving a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. The energy is supplied by the motion of water. Typically a dam is constructed on a river, creating an artificial lake behind it. Water flowing out of the lake is forced through turbines that turn generators(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J Battery).

Three Gorges Dam is the largest hydro-electric power station.

Pressurized water is used in water blasting and water jet cutters. Also, very high pressure water guns are used for precise cutting. It works very well, is relatively safe, and is not harmful to the environment. It is also used in the cooling of machinery to prevent overheating, or prevent saw blades from overheating(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E Battery).

Water is also used in many industrial processes and machines, such as the steam turbine and heat exchanger, in addition to its use as a chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal pollution) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/W Battery). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge.

Food processing

Water can be used to cook foods such as noodles.

Water plays many critical roles within the field of food science. It is important for a food scientist to understand the roles that water plays within food processing to ensure the success of their products(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/P Battery).

Solutes such as salts and sugars found in water affect the physical properties of water. The boiling and freezing points of water are affected by solutes, as well as air pressure, which is in turn affected by altitude. Water boils at lower temperatures with the lower air pressure which occurs at higher elevations. One mole of sucrose (sugar) per kilogram of water raises the boiling point of water by 0.51 °C(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/W Battery), and one mole of salt per kg raises the boiling point by 1.02 °C; similarly, increasing the number of dissolved particles lowers water’s freezing point.[59] Solutes in water also affect water activity which affects many chemical reactions and the growth of microbes in food.[60] Water activity can be described as a ratio of the vapor pressure of water in a solution to the vapor pressure of pure water. (SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/S Battery) Solutes in water lower water activity. This is important to know because most bacterial growth ceases at low levels of water activity.[60] Not only does microbial growth affect the safety of food but also the preservation and shelf life of food.

Water hardness is also a critical factor in food processing. It can dramatically affect the quality of a product as well as playing a role in sanitation. Water hardness is classified based on the amounts of removable calcium carbonate salt it contains per gallon(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/P Battery). Water hardness is measured in grains; 0.064 g calcium carbonate is equivalent to one grain of hardness.[59] Water is classified as soft if it contains 1 to 4 grains, medium if it contains 5 to 10 grains and hard if it contains 11 to 20 grains.[vague] [59] The hardness of water may be altered or treated by using a chemical ion exchange system. The hardness of water also affects its pH balance which plays a critical role in food processing(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S/S Battery). For example, hard water prevents successful production of clear beverages. Water hardness also affects sanitation; with increasing hardness, there is a loss of effectiveness for its use as a sanitizer.[59]

Boiling, steaming, and simmering are popular cooking methods that often require immersing food in water or its gaseous state, steam. Water is also used for dishwashing(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/W Battery).

Water law, water politics and water crisis

Water politics is politics affected by water and water resources. For this reason, water is a strategic resource in the globe and an important element in many political conflicts. It causes health impacts and damage to biodiversity.

1.6 billion people have gained access to a safe water source since 1990.[61] The proportion of people in developing countries with access to safe water is calculated to have improved from 30% in 1970[62] to 71% in 1990(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/P Battery), 79% in 2000 and 84% in 2004. This trend is projected to continue.[8] To halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water is one of the Millennium Development Goals. This goal is projected to be reached.

A 2006 United Nations report stated that “there is enough water for everyone”, but that access to it is hampered by mismanagement and corruption(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z/S Battery).[63] In addition, global initiatives to improve the efficiency of aid delivery, such as the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, have not been taken up by water sector donors as effectively as they have in education and health, potentially leaving multiple donors working on overlapping projects and recipient governments without empowerment to act(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/W Battery).[64]

The authors of the 2007 Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture cited poor governance as one reason for some forms of water scarcity. Water governance is the set of formal and informal processes through which decisions related to water management are made. Good water governance is primarily about knowing what processes work best in a particular physical and socioeconomic context(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/S Battery). Mistakes have sometimes been made by trying to apply ‘blueprints’ that work in the developed world to developing world locations and contexts. The Mekong river is one example; a review by the International Water Management Institute of policies in six countries that rely on the Mekong river for water found that thorough and transparent cost-benefit analyses and environmental impact assessments were rarely undertaken(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/W Battery). They also discovered that Cambodia’s draft water law was much more complex than it needed to be.[65]

The UN World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from the World Water Assessment Program indicates that, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is predicted to decrease by 30%(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/P Battery). 40% of the world’s inhabitants currently have insufficient fresh water for minimal hygiene. More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from waterborne diseases (related to the consumption of contaminated water) or drought. In 2004, the UK charity WaterAid reported that a child dies every 15 seconds from easily preventable water-related diseases; often this means lack of sewage disposal; see toilet(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S/S Battery).

Organizations concerned with water protection include International Water Association (IWA), WaterAid, Water 1st, American Water Resources Association. The International Water Management Institute undertakes projects with the aim of using effective water management to reduce poverty. Water related conventions are United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/W Battery), International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and Ramsar Convention. World Day for Water takes place on 22 March and World Ocean Day on 8 June.

Water used in the production of a good or service is virtual water.

In culture

Religion

Main article: Water and religion

Water is considered a purifier in most religions. Major faiths that incorporate ritual washing (ablution) include Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Rastafari movement, Shinto, Taoism, and Wicca(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/S Battery). Immersion (or aspersion or affusion) of a person in water is a central sacrament of Christianity (where it is called baptism); it is also a part of the practice of other religions, including Islam (Ghusl), Judaism (mikvah) and Sikhism (Amrit Sanskar). In addition, a ritual bath in pure water is performed for the dead in many religions including Islam and Judaism(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z/S Battery). In Islam, the five daily prayers can be done in most cases after completing washing certain parts of the body using clean water (wudu), unless water is unavailable (see Tayammum). In Shinto, water is used in almost all rituals to cleanse a person or an area (e.g., in the ritual of misogi). Water is mentioned numerous times in the Bible, for example: “The earth was formed out of water and by water” (NIV) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS11S/S Battery). In the Qur’an it is stated that “Living things are made of water” and it is often used to describe paradise.

Philosophy

The Ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles held that water is one of the four classical elements along with fire, earth and air, and was regarded as the ylem, or basic substance of the universe. Water was considered cold and moist. In the theory of the four bodily humors, water was associated with phlegm. The classical element of Water was also one of the five elements in traditional Chinese philosophy, along with earth, fire, wood, and metal(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M/S Battery).

Water is also taken as a role model in some parts of traditional and popular Asian philosophy. James Legge’s 1891 translation of the Dao De Jing states “The highest excellence is like (that of) water. The excellence of water appears in its benefiting all things, and in its occupying, without striving (to the contrary), the low place which all men dislike(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L/S Battery). Hence (its way) is near to (that of) the Tao” and “There is nothing in the world more soft and weak than water, and yet for attacking things that are firm and strong there is nothing that can take precedence of it—for there is nothing (so effectual) for which it can be changed.”[66]

Literature

Water is used in literature as a symbol of purification. Examples include the critical importance of a river in As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner and the drowning of Ophelia in Hamlet(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E/S Battery).

Sherlock Holmes held that “From a drop of water, a logician could infer the possibility of an Atlantic or a Niagara without having seen or heard of one or the other.”[67]

The most common isotope of hydrogen is protium (name rarely used, symbol 1H) with a single proton and no neutrons. In ionic compounds it can take a negative charge (an anion known as a hydride and written as H?), or as a positively charged species H+HP Pavilion dv6-1299ez battery. The latter cation is written as though composed of a bare proton, but in reality, hydrogen cations in ionic compounds always occur as more complex species. Hydrogen forms compounds with most elements and is present in water and most organic compoundsHP Pavilion dv6-1299es battery. It plays a particularly important role in acid-base chemistry with many reactions exchanging protons between soluble molecules. As the simplest atom known, the hydrogen atom has been of theoretical use. For example, as the only neutral atom with an analytic solution to the Schrödinger equation, the study of the energetics and bonding of the hydrogen atom played a key role in the development of quantum mechanicsHP Pavilion dv6-1299er battery.

Hydrogen gas (now known to be H2) was first artificially produced in the early 16th century, via the mixing of metals with strong acids. In 1766–81, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize that hydrogen gas was a discrete substance,[6] and that it produces water when burned, a property which later gave it its nameHP Pavilion dv6-1299eo battery, which in Greek means “water-former.” At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, non-toxic, highly combustible diatomic gas with the molecular formula H2.

Industrial production is mainly from the steam reforming of natural gas, and less often from more energy-intensive hydrogen production methods like the electrolysis of waterHP Pavilion dv6-1299ef battery.[7] Most hydrogen is employed near its production site, with the two largest uses being fossil fuel processing (e.g., hydrocracking) and ammonia production, mostly for the fertilizer market.

Hydrogen is a concern in metallurgy as it can embrittle many metals,[8] complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanksHP Pavilion dv6-1299ea battery.[9]

Properties

Combustion

The Space Shuttle Main Engine burnt hydrogen with oxygen, producing a nearly invisible flame at full thrust.

Hydrogen gas (dihydrogen or molecular hydrogen)[10] is highly flammable and will burn in air at a very wide range of concentrations between 4% and 75% by volume.[11] The enthalpy of combustion for hydrogen is ?286 kJ/mol:[12]

2 H2(g) + O2(g) ? 2 H2O(l) + 572 kJ (286 kJ/mol)[note 1HP Pavilion dv6-1295el battery]

Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air if it is 4–74% concentrated and with chlorine if it is 5–95% concentrated. The mixtures spontaneously explode by spark, heat or sunlight. The hydrogen autoignition temperature, the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is 500 °C (932 °F) HP Pavilion dv6-1291es battery.[13] Pure hydrogen-oxygen flames emit ultraviolet light and are nearly invisible to the naked eye, as illustrated by the faint plume of the Space Shuttle Main Engine compared to the highly visible plume of a Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster. The detection of a burning hydrogen leak may require a flame detector; such leaks can be very dangerousHP Pavilion dv6-1290ev battery. The destruction of the Hindenburg airship was an infamous example of hydrogen combustion; the cause is debated, but the visible flames were the result of combustible materials in the ship’s skin.[14] Because hydrogen is buoyant in air, hydrogen flames tend to ascend rapidly and cause less damage than hydrocarbon fires. Two-thirds of the Hindenburg passengers survived the fire, and many deaths were instead the result of falls or burning diesel fuelHP Pavilion dv6-1290es battery.[15]

H2 reacts with every oxidizing element. Hydrogen can react spontaneously and violently at room temperature with chlorine and fluorine to form the corresponding hydrogen halides, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride, which are also potentially dangerous acids. HP Pavilion dv6-1290en battery

Electron energy levels

Main article: Hydrogen atom

Depiction of a hydrogen atom with size of central proton shown, and the atomic diameter shown as about twice the Bohr model radius (image not to scale).

The ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is ?13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 92 nm wavelengthHP Pavilion dv6-1290ec battery.[17]

The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, which conceptualizes the electron as “orbiting” the proton in analogy to the Earth’s orbit of the Sun. However, the electromagnetic force attracts electrons and protons to one another, while planets and celestial objects are attracted to each other by gravityHP Pavilion dv6-1288la battery. Because of the discretization of angular momentum postulated in early quantum mechanics by Bohr, the electron in the Bohr model can only occupy certain allowed distances from the proton, and therefore only certain allowed energies.[18]

A more accurate description of the hydrogen atom comes from a purely quantum mechanical treatment that uses the Schrödinger equation or the Feynman path integral formulation to calculate the probability density of the electron around the protonHP Pavilion dv6-1285es battery.[19] The most complicated treatments allow for the small effects of special relativity and vacuum polarization. In the quantum mechanical treatment, the electron in a ground state hydrogen atom has no angular momentum at all— an illustration of how different the “planetary orbit” conception of electron motion differs from realityHP Pavilion dv6-1282et battery.

Elemental molecular forms

See also: Spin isomers of hydrogen

First tracks observed in liquid hydrogen bubble chamber at the Bevatron

There exist two different spin isomers of hydrogen diatomic molecules that differ by the relative spin of their nuclei.[20] In the orthohydrogen form, the spins of the two protons are parallel and form a triplet state with a molecular spin quantum number of 1 (½+½); in the parahydrogen form the spins are antiparallel and form a singlet with a molecular spin quantum number of 0 (½–½)HP Pavilion dv6-1280us battery. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas contains about 25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form, also known as the “normal form”.[21] The equilibrium ratio of orthohydrogen to parahydrogen depends on temperature, but because the ortho form is an excited state and has a higher energy than the para form, it is unstable and cannot be purifiedHP Pavilion dv6-1280sn battery. At very low temperatures, the equilibrium state is composed almost exclusively of the para form. The liquid and gas phase thermal properties of pure parahydrogen differ significantly from those of the normal form because of differences in rotational heat capacities, as discussed more fully in Spin isomers of hydrogen.[22] The ortho/para distinction also occurs in other hydrogen-containing molecules or functional groupsHP Pavilion dv6-1280ev battery, such as water and methylene, but is of little significance for their thermal properties.[23]

The uncatalyzed interconversion between para and ortho H2 increases with increasing temperature; thus rapidly condensed H2 contains large quantities of the high-energy ortho form that converts to the para form very slowlyHP Pavilion dv6-1280et battery.[24] The ortho/para ratio in condensed H2 is an important consideration in the preparation and storage of liquid hydrogen: the conversion from ortho to para is exothermic and produces enough heat to evaporate some of the hydrogen liquid, leading to loss of liquefied material. Catalysts for the ortho-para interconversionHP Pavilion dv6-1280es battery, such as ferric oxide, activated carbon, platinized asbestos, rare earth metals, uranium compounds, chromic oxide, or some nickel[25] compounds, are used during hydrogen cooling.[26]

Further information: Hydrogen compounds

Covalent and organic compounds

While H2 is not very reactive under standard conditions, it does form compounds with most elements. Hydrogen can form compounds with elements that are more electronegative, such as halogens (e.g., F, Cl, Br, I), or oxygenHP Pavilion dv6-1280ep battery; in these compounds hydrogen takes on a partial positive charge.[27] When bonded to fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, hydrogen can participate in a form of medium-strength noncovalent bonding called hydrogen bonding, which is critical to the stability of many biological molecules.[28][29] Hydrogen also forms compounds with less electronegative elementsHP Pavilion dv6-1280el battery, such as the metals and metalloids, in which it takes on a partial negative charge. These compounds are often known as hydrides.[30]

Hydrogen forms a vast array of compounds with carbon called the hydrocarbons, and an even vaster array with heteroatoms that, because of their general association with living things, are called organic compoundsHP Pavilion dv6-1277la battery.[31] The study of their properties is known as organic chemistry[32] and their study in the context of living organisms is known as biochemistry.[33] By some definitions, “organic” compounds are only required to contain carbon. However, most of them also contain hydrogenHP Pavilion dv6-1277el battery, and because it is the carbon-hydrogen bond which gives this class of compounds most of its particular chemical characteristics, carbon-hydrogen bonds are required in some definitions of the word “organic” in chemistry.[31] Millions of hydrocarbons are known, and they are usually formed by complicated synthetic pathways, which seldom involve elementary hydrogenHP Pavilion dv6-1275la battery.

Hydrides

Compounds of hydrogen are often called hydrides, a term that is used fairly loosely. The term “hydride” suggests that the H atom has acquired a negative or anionic character, denoted H?, and is used when hydrogen forms a compound with a more electropositive element. The existence of the hydride anionHP Pavilion dv6-1275eg battery, suggested by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1916 for group I and II salt-like hydrides, was demonstrated by Moers in 1920 with the electrolysis of molten lithium hydride (LiH), that produced a stoichiometry quantity of hydrogen at the anode.[34] For hydrides other than group I and II metalsHP Pavilion dv6-1270st battery, the term is quite misleading, considering the low electronegativity of hydrogen. An exception in group II hydrides is BeH2, which is polymeric. In lithium aluminium hydride, the AlH?

4 anion carries hydridic centers firmly attached to the Al(III).

Although hydrides can be formed with almost all main-group elements, the number and combination of possible compounds varies widely; for example, there are over 100 binary borane hydrides known, but only one binary aluminium hydrideHP Pavilion dv6-1270ss battery.[35] Binary indium hydride has not yet been identified, although larger complexes exist.[36]

In inorganic chemistry, hydrides can also serve as bridging ligands that link two metal centers in a coordination complex. This function is particularly common in group 13 elements, especially in boranes (boron hydrides) and aluminium complexes, as well as in clustered carboranesHP Pavilion dv6-1270la battery.[37]

Protons and acids

Further information: Acid–base reaction

Oxidation of hydrogen removes its electron and gives H+, which contains no electrons and a nucleus which is usually composed of one proton. That is why H+ is often called a proton. This species is central to discussion of acids. Under the Bronsted-Lowry theory, acids are proton donors, while bases are proton acceptorsHP Pavilion dv6-1270ev battery.

A bare proton, H+, cannot exist in solution or in ionic crystals, because of its unstoppable attraction to other atoms or molecules with electrons. Except at the high temperatures associated with plasmas, such protons cannot be removed from the electron clouds of atoms and molecules, and will remain attached to themHP Pavilion dv6-1270et battery. However, the term ‘proton’ is sometimes used loosely and metaphorically to refer to positively charged or cationic hydrogen attached to other species in this fashion, and as such is denoted “H+” without any implication that any single protons exist freely as a speciesHP Pavilion dv6-1270eq battery.

To avoid the implication of the naked “solvated proton” in solution, acidic aqueous solutions are sometimes considered to contain a less unlikely fictitious species, termed the “hydronium ion” (H3O+). However, even in this case, such solvated hydrogen cations are thought more realistically physically to be organized into clusters that form species closer to H9O+HP Pavilion dv6-1270el battery

4.[38] Other oxonium ions are found when water is in solution with other solvents.[39]

Although exotic on earth, one of the most common ions in the universe is the H+

3 ion, known as protonated molecular hydrogen or the trihydrogen cation.[40]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of hydrogen

Hydrogen discharge (spectrum) tube

Deuterium discharge (spectrum) tubeHP Pavilion dv6-1270eg battery

Protium, the most common isotope of hydrogen, has one proton and one electron. Unique among all stable isotopes, it has no neutrons (see diproton for a discussion of why others do not exist).

Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted 1H, 2H and 3H. Other, highly unstable nuclei (4H to 7H) have been synthesized in the laboratory but not observed in nature. HP Pavilion dv6-1270ec battery

1H is the most common hydrogen isotope with an abundance of more than 99.98%. Because the nucleus of this isotope consists of only a single proton, it is given the descriptive but rarely used formal name protium.[43]

2H, the other stable hydrogen isotope, is known as deuterium and contains one proton and one neutron in its nucleusHP Pavilion dv6-1268tx battery. Essentially all deuterium in the universe is thought to have been produced at the time of the Big Bang, and has endured since that time. Deuterium is not radioactive, and does not represent a significant toxicity hazard. Water enriched in molecules that include deuterium instead of normal hydrogen is called heavy waterHP Pavilion dv6-1268nr battery. Deuterium and its compounds are used as a non-radioactive label in chemical experiments and in solvents for 1H-NMR spectroscopy.[44] Heavy water is used as a neutron moderator and coolant for nuclear reactors. Deuterium is also a potential fuel for commercial nuclear fusionHP Pavilion dv6-1266el battery.[45]

3H is known as tritium and contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus. It is radioactive, decaying into helium-3 through beta decay with a half-life of 12.32 years.[37] It is so radioactive that it can be used in luminous paint, making it useful in such things as watchesHP Pavilion dv6-1265tx battery. The glass prevents the small amount of radiation from getting out.[46] Small amounts of tritium occur naturally because of the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric gases; tritium has also been released during nuclear weapons tests.[47] It is used in nuclear fusion reactions,[48] as a tracer in isotope geochemistry,[49] and specialized in self-powered lighting devicesHP Pavilion dv6-1265sg battery.[50] Tritium has also been used in chemical and biological labeling experiments as a radiolabel.[51]

Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes in common use today. During the early study of radioactivity, various heavy radioactive isotopes were given their own names, but such names are no longer used, except for deuterium and tritiumHP Pavilion dv6-1264tx battery. The symbols D and T (instead of 2H and 3H) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium, but the corresponding symbol for protium, P, is already in use for phosphorus and thus is not available for protium.[52] In its nomenclatural guidelines, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry allows any of D, T, 2H, and 3H to be used, although 2H and 3H are preferredHP Pavilion dv6-1264ca battery.[53]

History

Discovery and use

Main article: Timeline of hydrogen technologies

In 1671, Robert Boyle discovered and described the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in the production of hydrogen gas.[54][55] In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by naming the gas from a metal-acid reaction “flammable air”HP Pavilion dv6-1263cl battery. He speculated that “flammable air” was in fact identical to the hypothetical substance called “phlogiston”[56][57] and further finding in 1781 that the gas produces water when burned. He is usually given credit for its discovery as an element.[58][59] In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier gave the element the name hydrogen (from the Greek ???? hydro meaning water and ????? genes meaning creator) HP Pavilion dv6-1261tx battery when he and Laplace reproduced Cavendish’s finding that water is produced when hydrogen is burned.[59]

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier

Lavoisier produced hydrogen for his famous experiments on mass conservation by reacting a flux of steam with metallic iron through an incandescent iron tube heated in a fire. Anaerobic oxidation of iron by the protons of water at high temperature can be schematically represented by the set of following reactionsHP Pavilion dv6-1260tx battery:

Fe +    H2O ? FeO + H2

2 Fe + 3 H2O ? Fe2O3 + 3 H2

3 Fe + 4 H2O ? Fe3O4 + 4 H2

Many metals such as zirconium undergo a similar reaction with water leading to the production of hydrogen.

Hydrogen was liquefied for the first time by James Dewar in 1898 by using regenerative cooling and his invention, the vacuum flask.[59] He produced solid hydrogen the next year.[59] Deuterium was discovered in December 1931 by Harold UreyHP Pavilion dv6-1260sn battery, and tritium was prepared in 1934 by Ernest Rutherford, Mark Oliphant, and Paul Harteck.[58] Heavy water, which consists of deuterium in the place of regular hydrogen, was discovered by Urey’s group in 1932.[59] François Isaac de Rivaz built the first internal combustion engine powered by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in 1806. Edward Daniel Clarke invented the hydrogen gas blowpipe in 1819HP Pavilion dv6-1260sh battery. The Döbereiner’s lamp and limelight were invented in 1823.[59]

The first hydrogen-filled balloon was invented by Jacques Charles in 1783.[59] Hydrogen provided the lift for the first reliable form of air-travel following the 1852 invention of the first hydrogen-lifted airship by Henri Giffard.[59] German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin promoted the idea of rigid airships lifted by hydrogen that later were called ZeppelinsHP Pavilion dv6-1260sg battery; the first of which had its maiden flight in 1900.[59] Regularly scheduled flights started in 1910 and by the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, they had carried 35,000 passengers without a serious incident. Hydrogen-lifted airships were used as observation platforms and bombers during the warHP Pavilion dv6-1260se battery.

The first non-stop transatlantic crossing was made by the British airship R34 in 1919. Regular passenger service resumed in the 1920s and the discovery of helium reserves in the United States promised increased safety, but the U.S. government refused to sell the gas for this purpose. Therefore, H2 was used in the Hindenburg airship, which was destroyed in a midair fire over New Jersey on May 6, 1937HP Pavilion dv6-1260ev battery.[59] The incident was broadcast live on radio and filmed. Ignition of leaking hydrogen is widely assumed to be the cause, but later investigations pointed to the ignition of the aluminized fabric coating by static electricity. But the damage to hydrogen’s reputation as a lifting gas was already doneHP Pavilion dv6-1260et battery.

In the same year the first hydrogen-cooled turbogenerator went into service with gaseous hydrogen as a coolant in the rotor and the stator in 1937 at Dayton, Ohio, by the Dayton Power & Light Co,[61] because of the thermal conductivity of hydrogen gas this is the most common type in its field todayHP Pavilion dv6-1260ep battery.

The nickel hydrogen battery was used for the first time in 1977 aboard the U.S. Navy’s Navigation technology satellite-2 (NTS-2).[62] For example, the ISS,[63] Mars Odyssey[64] and the Mars Global Surveyor[65] are equipped with nickel-hydrogen batteries. In the dark part of its orbit, the Hubble Space Telescope is also powered by nickel-hydrogen batteriesHP Pavilion dv6-1260ej battery, which were finally replaced in May 2009, more than 19 years after launch, and 13 years over their design life.

Role in quantum theory

Hydrogen emission spectrum lines in the visible range. These are the four visible lines of the Balmer series

Because of its relatively simple atomic structure, consisting only of a proton and an electron, the hydrogen atom, together with the spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it, has been central to the development of the theory of atomic structureHP Pavilion dv6-1260ei battery.[66] Furthermore, the corresponding simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation H2+ allowed fuller understanding of the nature of the chemical bond, which followed shortly after the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid-1920s.

One of the first quantum effects to be explicitly noticed (but not understood at the time) was a Maxwell observation involving hydrogenHP Pavilion dv6-1260ec battery, half a century before full quantum mechanical theory arrived. Maxwell observed that the specific heat capacity of H2 unaccountably departs from that of a diatomic gas below room temperature and begins to increasingly resemble that of a monatomic gas at cryogenic temperatures. According to quantum theoryHP Pavilion dv6-1259tx battery, this behavior arises from the spacing of the (quantized) rotational energy levels, which are particularly wide-spaced in H2 because of its low mass. These widely spaced levels inhibit equal partition of heat energy into rotational motion in hydrogen at low temperatures. Diatomic gases composed of heavier atoms do not have such widely spaced levels and do not exhibit the same effect. HP Pavilion dv6-1259dx battery

Natural occurrence

NGC 604, a giant region of ionized hydrogen in the Triangulum Galaxy

Hydrogen, as atomic H, is the most abundant chemical element in the universe, making up 75% of normal matter by mass and over 90% by number of atoms (most of the mass of the universe, however, is not in the form of chemical-element type matter, but rather is postulated to occur as yet-undetected forms of mass such as dark matter and dark energy). HP Pavilion dv6-1256tx battery This element is found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets. Molecular clouds of H2 are associated with star formation. Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering stars through proton-proton reaction and CNO cycle nuclear fusion.[69]

Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the atomic and plasma states whose properties are quite different from molecular hydrogenHP Pavilion dv6-1255tx battery. As a plasma, hydrogen’s electron and proton are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity and high emissivity (producing the light from the Sun and other stars). The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind they interact with the Earth’s magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the auroraHP Pavilion dv6-1255eg battery. Hydrogen is found in the neutral atomic state in the Interstellar medium. The large amount of neutral hydrogen found in the damped Lyman-alpha systems is thought to dominate the cosmological baryonic density of the Universe up to redshift z=4.[70]

Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H2 (for data see table) HP Pavilion dv6-1255ee battery. However, hydrogen gas is very rare in the Earth’s atmosphere (1 ppm by volume) because of its light weight, which enables it to escape from Earth’s gravity more easily than heavier gases. However, hydrogen is the third most abundant element on the Earth’s surface,[71] mostly in the form of chemical compounds such as hydrocarbons and waterHP Pavilion dv6-1254tx battery.[37] Hydrogen gas is produced by some bacteria and algae and is a natural component of flatus, as is methane, itself a hydrogen source of increasing importance.[72]

A molecular form called protonated molecular hydrogen (H3+) is found in the interstellar medium (ISM), where it is generated by ionization of molecular hydrogen from cosmic raysHP Pavilion dv6-1253cl battery. It has also been observed in the upper atmosphere of the planet Jupiter. This ion is relatively stable in the environment of outer space due to the low temperature and density. H3+ is one of the most abundant ions in the Universe, and it plays a notable role in the chemistry of the interstellar medium.[73] Neutral triatomic hydrogen H3 can only exist in an excited form and is unstableHP Pavilion dv6-1253ca battery.[74] The hydrogen molecular ion (H2+) is a rare molecular system in the universe.

Production

For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen production.

H2 is produced in chemistry and biology laboratories, often as a by-product of other reactions; in industry for the hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates; and in nature as a means of expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions.

Laboratory

In the laboratory, H2 is usually prepared by the reaction of acids on metals such as zinc with Kipp’s apparatusHP Pavilion dv6-1252tx battery.

Zn + 2 H+ ? Zn2+ + H2

Aluminium can also produce H2 upon treatment with bases:

2 Al + 6 H2O + 2 OH? ? 2 Al(OH)?

4 + 3 H2

The electrolysis of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen. A low voltage current is run through the water, and gaseous oxygen forms at the anode while gaseous hydrogen forms at the cathode. Typically the cathode is made from platinum or another inert metal when producing hydrogen for storage. If, howeverHP Pavilion dv6-1250us battery, the gas is to be burnt on site, oxygen is desirable to assist the combustion, and so both electrodes would be made from inert metals. (Iron, for instance, would oxidize, and thus decrease the amount of oxygen given off.) The theoretical maximum efficiency (electricity used vs. energetic value of hydrogen produced) is in the range 80–94%.[75]

2 H2O(l) ? 2 H2(g) + O2(g) HP Pavilion dv6-1250ss battery

In 2007, it was discovered that an alloy of aluminium and gallium in pellet form added to water could be used to generate hydrogen. The process also creates alumina, but the expensive gallium, which prevents the formation of an oxide skin on the pellets, can be re-used. This has important potential implications for a hydrogen economy, as hydrogen can be produced on-site and does not need to be transportedHP Pavilion dv6-1250sp battery.[76]

Industrial

Main article: Hydrogen production

Hydrogen can be prepared in several different ways, but economically the most important processes involve removal of hydrogen from hydrocarbons. Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of natural gas.[77] At high temperatures (1000–1400 K, 700–1100 °C or 1300–2000 °F), steam (water vapor) reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and H2HP Pavilion dv6-1250sn battery.

CH4 + H2O ? CO + 3 H2

This reaction is favored at low pressures but is nonetheless conducted at high pressures (2.0  MPa, 20 atm or 600 inHg). This is because high-pressure H2 is the most marketable product and Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) purification systems work better at higher pressuresHP Pavilion dv6-1250sc battery. The product mixture is known as “synthesis gas” because it is often used directly for the production of methanol and related compounds. Hydrocarbons other than methane can be used to produce synthesis gas with varying product ratios. One of the many complications to this highly optimized technology is the formation of coke or carbonHP Pavilion dv6-1250eq battery:

CH4 ? C + 2 H2

Consequently, steam reforming typically employs an excess of H2O. Additional hydrogen can be recovered from the steam by use of carbon monoxide through the water gas shift reaction, especially with an iron oxide catalyst. This reaction is also a common industrial source of carbon dioxide:[77]

CO + H2O ? CO2 + H2

Other important methods for H2 production include partial oxidation of hydrocarbons: HP Pavilion dv6-1250ep battery

2 CH4 + O2 ? 2 CO + 4 H2

and the coal reaction, which can serve as a prelude to the shift reaction above:[77]

C + H2O ? CO + H2

Hydrogen is sometimes produced and consumed in the same industrial process, without being separated. In the Haber process for the production of ammonia, hydrogen is generated from natural gas.[79] Electrolysis of brine to yield chlorine also produces hydrogen as a co-product. HP Pavilion dv6-1250eo battery

Thermochemical

There are more than 200 thermochemical cycles which can be used for water splitting, around a dozen of these cycles such as the iron oxide cycle, cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinc zinc-oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine cycle, copper-chlorine cycle and hybrid sulfur cycle are under research and in testing phase to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and heat without using electricityHP Pavilion dv6-1250el battery.[81] A number of laboratories (including in France, Germany, Greece, Japan, and the USA) are developing thermochemical methods to produce hydrogen from solar energy and water.[82]

Anaerobic corrosion

Under anaerobic conditions, iron and steel alloys are slowly oxidized by the protons of water concomitantly reduced in molecular hydrogen (H2). The anaerobic corrosion of iron leads first to the formation of ferrous hydroxide (green rust) and can be described by the following reactionHP Pavilion dv6-1250eg battery:

Fe + 2 H2O ? Fe(OH)2 + H2

In its turn, under anaerobic conditions, the ferrous hydroxide (Fe(OH)2 ) can be oxidized by the protons of water to form magnetite and molecular hydrogen. This process is described by the Schikorr reaction:

3 Fe(OH)2 ? Fe3O4 + 2 H2O + H2

ferrous hydroxide ? magnetite + water + hydrogen

The well crystallized magnetite (Fe3O4) is thermodynamically more stable than the ferrous hydroxide (Fe(OH)2 ) HP Pavilion dv6-1250eb battery.

This process occurs during the anaerobic corrosion of iron and steel in oxygen-free groundwater and in reducing soils below the water table.

Geological occurrence: the serpentinization reaction

In the absence of atmospheric oxygen (O2), in deep geological conditions prevailing far away from Earth atmosphere, hydrogen (H2) is produced during the process of serpentinization by the anaerobic oxidation by the water protons HP Pavilion dv6-1249tx battery (H+) of the ferrous (Fe2+) silicate present in the crystal lattice of the fayalite (Fe2SiO4, the olivine iron-endmember). The corresponding reaction leading to the formation of magnetite (Fe3O4), quartz (SiO2) and hydrogen (H2) is the following:

3 Fe2SiO4 + 2 H2O ? 2 Fe3O4 + 3 SiO2 + 3 H2

fayalite + water ? magnetite + quartz + hydrogen

This reaction closely resembles the Schikorr reaction observed in the anaerobic oxidation of the ferrous hydroxide in contact with waterHP Pavilion dv6-1249eo battery.

Applications

Consumption in processes

Large quantities of H2 are needed in the petroleum and chemical industries. The largest application of H2 is for the processing (“upgrading”) of fossil fuels, and in the production of ammonia. The key consumers of H2 in the petrochemical plant include hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocrackingHP Pavilion dv6-1248eo battery. H2 has several other important uses. H2 is used as a hydrogenating agent, particularly in increasing the level of saturation of unsaturated fats and oils (found in items such as margarine), and in the production of methanol. It is similarly the source of hydrogen in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid. H2 is also used as a reducing agent of metallic oresHP Pavilion dv6-1248ca battery.[83]

Hydrogen is highly soluble in many rare earth and transition metals[84] and is soluble in both nanocrystalline and amorphous metals.[85] Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the crystal lattice.[86] These properties may be useful when hydrogen is purified by passage through hot palladium disksHP Pavilion dv6-1247tx battery, but the gas’s high solubility is a metallurgical problem, contributing to the embrittlement of many metals,[8] complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks.[9]

Apart from its use as a reactant, H2 has wide applications in physics and engineering. It is used as a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen weldingHP Pavilion dv6-1247ez battery.[87][88] H2 is used as the rotor coolant in electrical generators at power stations, because it has the highest thermal conductivity of any gas. Liquid H2 is used in cryogenic research, including superconductivity studies.[89] Because H2 is lighter than air, having a little more than 1?15 of the density of air, it was once widely used as a lifting gas in balloons and airshipsHP Pavilion dv6-1247et battery.[90]

In more recent applications, hydrogen is used pure or mixed with nitrogen (sometimes called forming gas) as a tracer gas for minute leak detection. Applications can be found in the automotive, chemical, power generation, aerospace, and telecommunications industriesHP Pavilion dv6-1247eo battery.[91] Hydrogen is an authorized food additive (E 949) that allows food package leak testing among other anti-oxidizing properties.[92]

Hydrogen’s rarer isotopes also each have specific applications. Deuterium (hydrogen-2) is used in nuclear fission applications as a moderator to slow neutrons, and in nuclear fusion reactions.[59] Deuterium compounds have applications in chemistry and biology in studies of reaction isotope effectsHP Pavilion dv6-1247cl battery.[93] Tritium (hydrogen-3), produced in nuclear reactors, is used in the production of hydrogen bombs,[94] as an isotopic label in the biosciences,[51] and as a radiation source in luminous paints.[95]

The triple point temperature of equilibrium hydrogen is a defining fixed point on the ITS-90 temperature scale at 13.8033 kelvinsHP Pavilion dv6-1246tx battery.[96]

Coolant

Hydrogen is commonly used in power stations, as a coolant in generators, due to its specific heat capacity being considerably higher than any other gas.

Energy carrier

See also: Hydrogen economy and Hydrogen infrastructure

Hydrogen is not an energy resource,[97] except in the hypothetical context of commercial nuclear fusion power plants using deuterium or tritium, a technology presently far from developmentHP Pavilion dv6-1246eo battery.[98] The Sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion of hydrogen, but this process is difficult to achieve controllably on Earth.[99] Elemental hydrogen from solar, biological, or electrical sources require more energy to make it than is obtained by burning it, so in these cases hydrogen functions as an energy carrier, like a batteryHP Pavilion dv6-1245et battery. Hydrogen may be obtained from fossil sources (such as methane), but these sources are unsustainable.[97]

The energy density per unit volume of both liquid hydrogen and compressed hydrogen gas at any practicable pressure is significantly less than that of traditional fuel sources, although the energy density per unit fuel mass is higher.[97] Nevertheless, elemental hydrogen has been widely discussed in the context of energyHP Pavilion dv6-1245es battery, as a possible future carrier of energy on an economy-wide scale.[100] For example, CO2 sequestration followed by carbon capture and storage could be conducted at the point of H2 production from fossil fuels.[101] Hydrogen used in transportation would burn relatively cleanly, with some NOx emissions,[102] but without carbon emissionsHP Pavilion dv6-1245eo battery.[101] However, the infrastructure costs associated with full conversion to a hydrogen economy would be substantial.[103]

Semiconductor industry

Hydrogen is employed to saturate broken (“dangling”) bonds of amorphous silicon and amorphous carbon that helps stabilizing material properties.[104] It is also a potential electron donor in various oxide materials, including ZnO,[105][106] SnO2, CdO, MgO,[107] ZrO2, HfO2, La2O3, Y2O3, TiO2, SrTiO3, LaAlO3, SiO2, Al2O3, ZrSiO4, HfSiO4, and SrZrO3HP Pavilion dv6-1245dx battery.[108]

Biological reactions

Further information: Biohydrogen and Biological hydrogen production

H2 is a product of some types of anaerobic metabolism and is produced by several microorganisms, usually via reactions catalyzed by iron- or nickel-containing enzymes called hydrogenases. These enzymes catalyze the reversible redox reaction between H2 and its component two protons and two electronsHP Pavilion dv6-1244tx battery. Creation of hydrogen gas occurs in the transfer of reducing equivalents produced during pyruvate fermentation to water.[109]

Water splitting, in which water is decomposed into its component protons, electrons, and oxygen, occurs in the light reactions in all photosynthetic organisms. Some such organisms, including the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and cyanobacteriaHP Pavilion dv6-1244sb battery, have evolved a second step in the dark reactions in which protons and electrons are reduced to form H2 gas by specialized hydrogenases in the chloroplast.[110] Efforts have been undertaken to genetically modify cyanobacterial hydrogenases to efficiently synthesize H2 gas even in the presence of oxygen.[111] Efforts have also been undertaken with genetically modified alga in a bioreactorHP Pavilion dv6-1243cl battery.[112]

Safety and precautions

Main article: Hydrogen safety

Hydrogen poses a number of hazards to human safety, from potential detonations and fires when mixed with air to being an asphyxiant in its pure, oxygen-free form.[113] In addition, liquid hydrogen is a cryogen and presents dangers (such as frostbite) associated with very cold liquidsHP Pavilion dv6-1242tx battery.[114] Hydrogen dissolves in many metals, and, in addition to leaking out, may have adverse effects on them, such as hydrogen embrittlement,[115] leading to cracks and explosions.[116] Hydrogen gas leaking into external air may spontaneously ignite. Moreover, hydrogen fire, while being extremely hot, is almost invisible, and thus can lead to accidental burnsHP Pavilion dv6-1242et battery.[117]

Even interpreting the hydrogen data (including safety data) is confounded by a number of phenomena. Many physical and chemical properties of hydrogen depend on the parahydrogen/orthohydrogen ratio (it often takes days or weeks at a given temperature to reach the equilibrium ratio, for which the data is usually given) HP Pavilion dv6-1241et battery. Hydrogen detonation parameters, such as critical detonation pressure and temperature, strongly depend on the container geometry.[113]

Oxygen ( /??ks?d??n/ ok-si-jin) is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. Its name derives from the Greek roots ???? (oxys) (“acid”, literally “sharp”, referring to the sour taste of acids) and -????? (-gen?s) (“producer”, literally “begetter”)HP Pavilion dv6-1241eo battery, because at the time of naming, it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition. At standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a very pale blue, odorless, tasteless diatomic gas with the formula O2HP Pavilion dv6-1240us battery.

Oxygen is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetallic element that readily forms compounds (notably oxides) with almost all other elements. Oxygen is a strong oxidizing agent and has the second-highest electronegativity of all the elements (only fluorine has a higher electronegativity) HP Pavilion dv6-1240tx battery.[1] By mass, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium[2] and the most abundant element by mass in the Earth’s crust, making up almost half of the crust’s mass.[3] Free oxygen is too chemically reactive to appear on Earth without the photosynthetic action of living organisms, which use the energy of sunlight to produce elemental oxygen from waterHP Pavilion dv6-1240sh battery. Elemental O2 only began to accumulate in the atmosphere after the evolutionary appearance of these organisms, roughly 2.5 billion years ago.[4] Diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.8% of the volume of air.[5]

Because it comprises most of the mass in water, oxygen comprises most of the mass of living organisms (for example, about two-thirds of the human body’s mass). All major classes of structural molecules in living organisms, such as proteinsHP Pavilion dv6-1240sf battery, carbohydrates, and fats, contain oxygen, as do the major inorganic compounds that comprise animal shells, teeth, and bone. Elemental oxygen is produced by cyanobacteria, algae and plants, and is used in cellular respiration for all complex life. Oxygen is toxic to obligately anaerobic organisms, which were the dominant form of early life on Earth until O2 began to accumulate in the atmosphereHP Pavilion dv6-1240sb battery. Another form (allotrope) of oxygen, ozone (O3), helps protect the biosphere from ultraviolet radiation with the high-altitude ozone layer, but is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog. At even higher low earth orbit altitudes atomic oxygen is a significant presence and a cause of erosion for spacecraftHP Pavilion dv6-1240ez battery.[6]

Oxygen was independently discovered by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in Uppsala, in 1773 or earlier, and Joseph Priestley in Wiltshire, in 1774, but Priestley is often given priority because his work was published first. The name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier,[7] whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosionHP Pavilion dv6-1240ep battery. Oxygen is produced industrially by fractional distillation of liquefied air, use of zeolites with pressure-cycling to concentrate oxygen from air, electrolysis of water and other means. Uses of oxygen include the production of steel, plastics and textiles; rocket propellant; oxygen therapy; and life support in aircraft, submarines, spaceflight and divingHP Pavilion dv6-1240eo battery.

Characteristics

Structure

Oxygen discharge (spectrum) tube

At standard temperature and pressure, oxygen is a very pale blue, odorless gas with the molecular formula O2, in which the two oxygen atoms are chemically bonded to each other with a spin triplet electron configuration. This bond has a bond order of two, and is often simplified in description as a double bond[8] or as a combination of one two-electron bond and two three-electron bondsHP Pavilion dv6-1240el battery.[9]

Triplet oxygen (not to be confused with ozone, O3) is the ground state of the O2 molecule.[10] The electron configuration of the molecule has two unpaired electrons occupying two degenerate molecular orbitals.[11] These orbitals are classified as antibonding (weakening the bond order from three to two) HP Pavilion dv6-1240ek battery, so the diatomic oxygen bond is weaker than the diatomic nitrogen triple bond in which all bonding molecular orbitals are filled, but some antibonding orbitals are not.[10]

A trickle of liquid oxygen is deflected by a magnetic field, illustrating its paramagnetic property

In normal triplet form, O2 molecules are paramagnetic. That is, they form a magnet in the presence of a magnetic field—because of the spin magnetic moments of the unpaired electrons in the moleculeHP Pavilion dv6-1240ei battery, and the negative exchange energy between neighboring O2 molecules.[12] Liquid oxygen is attracted to a magnet to a sufficient extent that, in laboratory demonstrations, a bridge of liquid oxygen may be supported against its own weight between the poles of a powerful magnet. HP Pavilion dv6-1240ef battery

Singlet oxygen is a name given to several higher-energy species of molecular O2 in which all the electron spins are paired. It is much more reactive towards common organic molecules than is molecular oxygen per se. In nature, singlet oxygen is commonly formed from water during photosynthesis, using the energy of sunlightHP Pavilion dv6-1240ed battery.[15] It is also produced in the troposphere by the photolysis of ozone by light of short wavelength,[16] and by the immune system as a source of active oxygen.[17] Carotenoids in photosynthetic organisms (and possibly also in animals) play a major role in absorbing energy from singlet oxygen and converting it to the unexcited ground state before it can cause harm to tissuesHP Pavilion dv6-1240ec battery.[18]

Allotropes

Main article: Allotropes of oxygen

Ozone is a rare gas on Earth found mostly in the stratosphere.

The common allotrope of elemental oxygen on Earth is called dioxygen, O2. It has a bond length of 121 pm and a bond energy of 498 kJ·mol?1.[19] This is the form that is used by complex forms of life, such as animals, in cellular respiration (see Biological role) and is the form that is a major part of the Earth’s atmosphere (see Occurrence) HP Pavilion dv6-1240ea battery. Other aspects of O2 are covered in the remainder of this article.

Trioxygen (O3) is usually known as ozone and is a very reactive allotrope of oxygen that is damaging to lung tissue.[20] Ozone is produced in the upper atmosphere when O2 combines with atomic oxygen made by the splitting of O2 by ultraviolet (UV) radiation.[7] Since ozone absorbs strongly in the UV region of the spectrumHP Pavilion dv6-1239tx battery, the ozone layer of the upper atmosphere functions as a protective radiation shield for the planet.[7] Near the Earth’s surface, however, it is a pollutant formed as a by-product of automobile exhaust.[20] The metastable molecule tetraoxygen (O4) was discovered in 2001,[21][22] and was assumed to exist in one of the six phases of solid oxygenHP Pavilion dv6-1239et battery. It was proven in 2006 that this phase, created by pressurizing O2 to 20 GPa, is in fact a rhombohedral O8 cluster.[23] This cluster has the potential to be a much more powerful oxidizer than either O2 or O3 and may therefore be used in rocket fuel.[21][22] A metallic phase was discovered in 1990 when solid oxygen is subjected to a pressure of above 96 GPa[24] and it was shown in 1998 that at very low temperatures, this phase becomes superconducting. HP Pavilion dv6-1239es battery

Physical properties

See also: Liquid oxygen and solid oxygen

Oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen is; water contains approximately 1 molecule of O2 for every 2 molecules of N2, compared to an atmospheric ratio of approximately 1:4. The solubility of oxygen in water is temperature-dependent, and about twice as much (14.6 mg·L?1) dissolves at 0 °C than at 20 °C (7.6 mg·L?1). HP Pavilion dv6-1238nr battery At 25 °C and 1 standard atmosphere (101.3 kPa) of air, freshwater contains about 6.04 milliliters (mL) of oxygen per liter, whereas seawater contains about 4.95 mL per liter.[28] At 5 °C the solubility increases to 9.0 mL (50% more than at 25 °C) per liter for water and 7.2 mL (45% more) per liter for sea water.

Oxygen condenses at 90.20 K (?182.95 °C, ?297.31 °F) HP Pavilion dv6-1238et battery, and freezes at 54.36 K (?218.79 °C, ?361.82 °F).[29] Both liquid and solid O2 are clear substances with a light sky-blue color caused by absorption in the red (in contrast with the blue color of the sky, which is due to Rayleigh scattering of blue light). High-purity liquid O2 is usually obtained by the fractional distillation of liquefied airHP Pavilion dv6-1238es battery.[30] Liquid oxygen may also be produced by condensation out of air, using liquid nitrogen as a coolant. It is a highly reactive substance and must be segregated from combustible materials.[31]

Isotopes and stellar origin

Main article: Isotopes of oxygen

Late in a massive star’s life, 16O concentrates in the O-shell, 17O in the H-shell and oxygen-1818O in the He-shell.

Naturally occurring oxygen is composed of three stable isotopes, 16O, 17O, and 18O, with 16O being the most abundant (99.762% natural abundance) HP Pavilion dv6-1238ca battery.[32]

Most 16O is synthesized at the end of the helium fusion process in massive stars but some is made in the neon burning process.[33] 17O is primarily made by the burning of hydrogen into helium during the CNO cycle, making it a common isotope in the hydrogen burning zones of stars.[33] Most 18O is produced when 14NHP Pavilion dv6-1237et battery (made abundant from CNO burning) captures a 4He nucleus, making 18O common in the helium-rich zones of evolved, massive stars.[33]

Fourteen radioisotopes have been characterized. The most stable are 15O with a half-life of 122.24 seconds and 14O with a half-life of 70.606 seconds.[32] All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 27 s and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 83 millisecondsHP Pavilion dv6-1237es battery.[32] The most common decay mode of the isotopes lighter than 16O is ?+ decay[34][35][36] to yield nitrogen, and the most common mode for the isotopes heavier than 18O is beta decay to yield fluorine.[32]

Occurrence

Oxygen is the most abundant chemical element, by mass, in our biosphere, air, sea and land. Oxygen is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium.[2] About 0.9% of the Sun’s mass is oxygenHP Pavilion dv6-1237ca battery.[5] Oxygen constitutes 49.2% of the Earth’s crust by mass[3] and is the major component of the world’s oceans (88.8% by mass).[5] Oxygen gas is the second most common component of the Earth’s atmosphere, taking up 20.8% of its volume and 23.1% of its mass (some 1015 tonnes). Earth is unusual among the planets of the Solar System in having such a high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphere: Mars (with 0.1% O2 by volume) HP Pavilion dv6-1236ss battery and Venus have far lower concentrations. However, the O2 surrounding these other planets is produced solely by ultraviolet radiation impacting oxygen-containing molecules such as carbon dioxide.

The unusually high concentration of oxygen gas on Earth is the result of the oxygen cycle. This biogeochemical cycle describes the movement of oxygen within and between its three main reservoirs on EarthHP Pavilion dv6-1236et battery: the atmosphere, the biosphere, and the lithosphere. The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, which is responsible for modern Earth’s atmosphere. Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere, while respiration and decay remove it from the atmosphere. In the present equilibrium, production and consumption occur at the same rate of roughly 1/2000th of the entire atmospheric oxygen per yearHP Pavilion dv6-1236eo battery.

Cold water holds more dissolved O2.

Free oxygen also occurs in solution in the world’s water bodies. The increased solubility of O2 at lower temperatures (see Physical properties) has important implications for ocean life, as polar oceans support a much higher density of life due to their higher oxygen content.[40] Polluted water may have reduced amounts of O2 in itHP Pavilion dv6-1235ss battery, depleted by decaying algae and other biomaterials through a process called eutrophication. Scientists assess this aspect of water quality by measuring the water’s biochemical oxygen demand, or the amount of O2 needed to restore it to a normal concentration. HP Pavilion dv6-1235sb battery

Biological role

Main article: Dioxygen in biological reactions

Photosynthesis and respiration

Photosynthesis splits water to liberate O2 and fixes CO2 into sugar.

In nature, free oxygen is produced by the light-driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis. According to some estimates, Green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70% of the free oxygen produced on earth and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants. HP Pavilion dv6-1235et battery Other estimates of the oceanic contribution to atmospheric oxygen are higher, while some estimates are lower, suggesting oceans produce ~45% of Earth’s atmospheric oxygen each year.[43]

A simplified overall formula for photosynthesis is:[44]

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + photons ? C6H12O6 + 6 O2 (or simply carbon dioxide + water + sunlight ? glucose + dioxygen) HP Pavilion dv6-1235es battery

Photolytic oxygen evolution occurs in the thylakoid membranes of photosynthetic organisms and requires the energy of four photons.[45] Many steps are involved, but the result is the formation of a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane, which is used to synthesize ATP via photophosphorylation.[46] The O2 remaining after oxidation of the water molecule is released into the atmosphere. HP Pavilion dv6-1235eo battery

Molecular dioxygen, O2, is essential for cellular respiration in all aerobic organisms. Oxygen is used in mitochondria to help generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during oxidative phosphorylation. The reaction for aerobic respiration is essentially the reverse of photosynthesis and is simplified asHP Pavilion dv6-1235ee battery:

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 ? 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 2880 kJ·mol?1

In vertebrates, O2 diffuses through membranes in the lungs and into red blood cells. Hemoglobin binds O2, changing its color from bluish red to bright red[20] (CO2 is released from another part of hemoglobin through the Bohr effect). Other animals use hemocyanin (molluscs and some arthropods) or hemerythrin (spiders and lobsters).[38] A liter of blood can dissolve 200 cm3 of O2. HP Pavilion dv6-1235ec battery

Reactive oxygen species, such as superoxide ion (O?

2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), are dangerous by-products of oxygen use in organisms.[38] Parts of the immune system of higher organisms, however, create peroxide, superoxide, and singlet oxygen to destroy invading microbes. Reactive oxygen species also play an important role in the hypersensitive response of plants against pathogen attack. HP Pavilion dv6-1234tx battery

An adult human in rest inhales 1.8 to 2.4 grams of oxygen per minute.[48] This amounts to more than 6 billion tonnes of oxygen inhaled by humanity per year.[49]

Content in body

The oxygen content in the body of a living organism is usually highest in the respiratory system, and decreases along any arterial system, peripheral tissues and venous system, respectivelyHP Pavilion dv6-1234nr battery. Oxygen content in this sense is often given as the partial pressure, which is the pressure which oxygen would have if it alone occupied the volume.[53]

Build-up in the atmosphere

Free oxygen gas was almost nonexistent in Earth’s atmosphere before photosynthetic archaea and bacteria evolved. Free oxygen first appeared in significant quantities during the Paleoproterozoic eon (between 2.5 and 1.6 billion years ago). At first, the oxygen combined with dissolved iron in the oceans to form banded iron formationsHP Pavilion dv6-1234eo battery. Free oxygen started to outgas from the oceans 2.7 billion years ago, reaching 10% of its present level around 1.7 billion years ago.[54]

The presence of large amounts of dissolved and free oxygen in the oceans and atmosphere may have driven most of the anaerobic organisms then living to extinction during the Great Oxygenation Event(oxygen catastrophe) about 2.4 billion years agoHP Pavilion dv6-1233et battery. However, cellular respiration using O2 enables aerobic organisms to produce much more ATP than anaerobic organisms, helping the former to dominate Earth’s biosphere.[55] Photosynthesis and cellular respiration of O2 allowed for the evolution of eukaryotic cells and ultimately complex multicellular organisms such as plants and animalsHP Pavilion dv6-1233eo battery.

Since the beginning of the Cambrian period 540 million years ago, O2 levels have fluctuated between 15% and 30% by volume.[56] Towards the end of the Carboniferous period (about 300 million years ago) atmospheric O2 levels reached a maximum of 35% by volumeHP Pavilion dv6-1232ss battery,[56] which may have contributed to the large size of insects and amphibians at this time.[57] Human activities, including the burning of 7 billion tonnes of fossil fuels each year have had very little effect on the amount of free oxygen in the atmosphere.[12] At the current rate of photosynthesis it would take about 2,000 years to regenerate the entire O2 in the present atmosphereHP Pavilion dv6-1232et battery.[58]

History

Early experiments

Philo’s experiment inspired later investigators.

One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work Pneumatica, Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle and surrounding the vessel’s neck with water resulted in some water rising into the neckHP Pavilion dv6-1232eo battery.[59] Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philo’s work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respirationHP Pavilion dv6-1231eo battery.[60]

In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion. English chemist John Mayow refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus or just nitroaereus.[61] In one experiment he found that placing either a mouse or a lit candle in a closed container over water caused the water to rise and replace one-fourteenth of the air’s volume before extinguishing the subjectsHP Pavilion dv6-1230us battery.[62] From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion.

Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated, and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it.[61] He also thought that the lungs separate nitroaereus from air and pass it into the blood and that animal heat and muscle movement result from the reaction of nitroaereus with certain substances in the bodyHP Pavilion dv6-1230ss battery.[61] Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work Tractatus duo in the tract “De respiratione”.[62]

Phlogiston theory

Main article: Phlogiston theory

Stahl helped develop and popularize the phlogiston theory.

Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as an element.[26] This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston theory, which was then the favored explanation of those processesHP Pavilion dv6-1230sl battery.

Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, and modified by the chemist Georg Ernst Stahl by 1731,[63] phlogiston theory stated that all combustible materials were made of two parts. One part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned, while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form, or calxHP Pavilion dv6-1230sf battery.[60]

Highly combustible materials that leave little residue, such as wood or coal, were thought to be made mostly of phlogiston; whereas non-combustible substances that corrode, such as iron, contained very little. Air did not play a role in phlogiston theory, nor were any initial quantitative experiments conducted to test the ideaHP Pavilion dv6-1230sb battery; instead, it was based on observations of what happens when something burns, that most common objects appear to become lighter and seem to lose something in the process.[60] The fact that a substance like wood actually gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the gaseous combustion products. Indeed one of the first clues that the phlogiston theory was incorrect was that metalsHP Pavilion dv6-1230ew battery, too, gain weight in rusting (when they were supposedly losing phlogiston).

Discovery

Carl Wilhelm Scheele beat Priestley to the discovery but published afterwards.

Oxygen was first discovered by Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. He had produced oxygen gas by heating mercuric oxide and various nitrates by about 1772.[5][60] Scheele called the gas “fire air” because it was the only known supporter of combustionHP Pavilion dv6-1230et battery, and wrote an account of this discovery in a manuscript he titled Treatise on Air and Fire, which he sent to his publisher in 1775. However, that document was not published until 1777.[64]

Joseph Priestley is usually given priority in the discovery.

In the meantime, on August 1, 1774, an experiment conducted by the British clergyman Joseph Priestley focused sunlight on mercuric oxide (HgO) inside a glass tube, which liberated a gas he named “dephlogisticated air”HP Pavilion dv6-1230er battery.[5] He noted that candles burned brighter in the gas and that a mouse was more active and lived longer while breathing it. After breathing the gas himself, he wrote: “The feeling of it to my lungs was not sensibly different from that of common air, but I fancied that my breast felt peculiarly light and easy for some time afterwards.” HP Pavilion dv6-1230eq battery Priestley published his findings in 1775 in a paper titled “An Account of Further Discoveries in Air” which was included in the second volume of his book titled Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air.[60][65] Because he published his findings first, Priestley is usually given priority in the discoveryHP Pavilion dv6-1230eo battery.

The noted French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier later claimed to have discovered the new substance independently. However, Priestley visited Lavoisier in October 1774 and told him about his experiment and how he liberated the new gas. Scheele also posted a letter to Lavoisier on September 30, 1774 that described his own discovery of the previously unknown substanceHP Pavilion dv6-1230ek battery, but Lavoisier never acknowledged receiving it (a copy of the letter was found in Scheele’s belongings after his death).[64]

Lavoisier’s contribution

What Lavoisier did indisputably do (although this was disputed at the time) was to conduct the first adequate quantitative experiments on oxidation and give the first correct explanation of how combustion worksHP Pavilion dv6-1230ej battery.[5] He used these and similar experiments, all started in 1774, to discredit the phlogiston theory and to prove that the substance discovered by Priestley and Scheele was a chemical element.

Antoine Lavoisier discredited the Phlogiston theory.

In one experiment, Lavoisier observed that there was no overall increase in weight when tin and air were heated in a closed containerHP Pavilion dv6-1230ed battery.[5] He noted that air rushed in when he opened the container, which indicated that part of the trapped air had been consumed. He also noted that the tin had increased in weight and that increase was the same as the weight of the air that rushed back in. This and other experiments on combustion were documented in his book Sur la combustion en général, which was published in 1777. HP Pavilion dv6-1230ec battery In that work, he proved that air is a mixture of two gases; ‘vital air’, which is essential to combustion and respiration, and azote (Gk. ?????? “lifeless”), which did not support either. Azote later became nitrogen in English, although it has kept the name in French and several other European languagesHP Pavilion dv6-1230ca battery.[5]

Lavoisier renamed ‘vital air’ to oxygène in 1777 from the Greek roots ???? (oxys) (acid, literally “sharp,” from the taste of acids) and -????? (-gen?s) (producer, literally begetter), because he mistakenly believed that oxygen was a constituent of all acids.[7] Chemists (notably Sir Humphrey Davy in 1812) eventually determined that Lavoisier was wrong in this regardHP Pavilion dv6-1229tx battery (it is in fact hydrogen that forms the basis for acid chemistry), but by that time it was too late, the name had taken.

Oxygen entered the English language despite opposition by English scientists and the fact that the Englishman Priestley had first isolated the gas and written about it. This is partly due to a poem praising the gas titled “Oxygen” in the popular book The Botanic Garden (1791) by Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of Charles Darwin. HP Pavilion dv6-1229sf battery

Later history

Robert H. Goddard and a liquid oxygen-gasoline rocket

John Dalton’s original atomic hypothesis assumed that all elements were monoatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. For example, Dalton assumed that water’s formula was HO, giving the atomic mass of oxygen as 8 times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of about 16HP Pavilion dv6-1229et battery.[66] In 1805, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen; and by 1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water’s composition, based on what is now called Avogadro’s law and the assumption of diatomic elemental molecules. HP Pavilion dv6-1229er battery

By the late 19th century scientists realized that air could be liquefied, and its components isolated, by compressing and cooling it. Using a cascade method, Swiss chemist and physicist Raoul Pierre Pictet evaporated liquid sulfur dioxide in order to liquefy carbon dioxide, which in turn was evaporated to cool oxygen gas enough to liquefy itHP Pavilion dv6-1228tx battery. He sent a telegram on December 22, 1877 to the French Academy of Sciences in Paris announcing his discovery of liquid oxygen.[69] Just two days later, French physicist Louis Paul Cailletet announced his own method of liquefying molecular oxygen.[69] Only a few drops of the liquid were produced in either case so no meaningful analysis could be conductedHP Pavilion dv6-1228sf battery. Oxygen was liquified in stable state for the first time on March 29, 1883 by Polish scientists from Jagiellonian University, Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski.[70]

In 1891 Scottish chemist James Dewar was able to produce enough liquid oxygen to study.[12] The first commercially viable process for producing liquid oxygen was independently developed in 1895 by German engineer Carl von Linde and British engineer William HampsonHP Pavilion dv6-1228ez battery. Both men lowered the temperature of air until it liquefied and then distilled the component gases by boiling them off one at a time and capturing them.[71] Later, in 1901, oxyacetylene welding was demonstrated for the first time by burning a mixture of acetylene and compressed O2. This method of welding and cutting metal later became commonHP Pavilion dv6-1227sf battery.[71]

In 1923 the American scientist Robert H. Goddard became the first person to develop a rocket engine; the engine used gasoline for fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidizer. Goddard successfully flew a small liquid-fueled rocket 56 m at 97 km/h on March 16, 1926 in Auburn, Massachusetts, USA. HP Pavilion dv6-1225tx battery

Industrial production

See also: Air separation, Oxygen evolution, and fractional distillation

Two major methods are employed to produce 100 million tonnes of O2 extracted from air for industrial uses annually.[64] The most common method is to fractionally distill liquefied air into its various components, with N2 distilling as a vapor while O2 is left as a liquid. HP Pavilion dv6-1225sv battery

Hofmann electrolysis apparatus used in electrolysis of water.

The other major method of producing O2 gas involves passing a stream of clean, dry air through one bed of a pair of identical zeolite molecular sieves, which absorbs the nitrogen and delivers a gas stream that is 90% to 93% O2.[64] Simultaneously, nitrogen gas is released from the other nitrogen-saturated zeolite bed, by reducing the chamber operating pressure and diverting part of the oxygen gas from the producer bed through it, in the reverse direction of flowHP Pavilion dv6-1225ss battery. After a set cycle time the operation of the two beds is interchanged, thereby allowing for a continuous supply of gaseous oxygen to be pumped through a pipeline. This is known as pressure swing adsorption. Oxygen gas is increasingly obtained by these non-cryogenic technologies (see also the related vacuum swing adsorption). HP Pavilion dv6-1225so battery

Oxygen gas can also be produced through electrolysis of water into molecular oxygen and hydrogen. DC electricity must be used: if AC is used, the gases in each limb consist of hydrogen and oxygen in the explosive ratio 2:1. Contrary to popular belief, the 2:1 ratio observed in the DC electrolysis of acidified water does not prove that the empirical formula of water is H2O unless certain assumptions are made about the molecular formulae of hydrogen and oxygen themselvesHP Pavilion dv6-1225sf battery. A similar method is the electrocatalytic O2 evolution from oxides and oxoacids. Chemical catalysts can be used as well, such as in chemical oxygen generators or oxygen candles that are used as part of the life-support equipment on submarines, and are still part of standard equipment on commercial airliners in case of depressurization emergenciesHP Pavilion dv6-1225ew battery. Another air separation technology involves forcing air to dissolve through ceramic membranes based on zirconium dioxide by either high pressure or an electric current, to produce nearly pure O2 gas.[41]

In large quantities, the price of liquid oxygen in 2001 was approximately $0.21/kg.[74] Since the primary cost of production is the energy cost of liquefying the air, the production cost will change as energy cost variesHP Pavilion dv6-1225et battery.

For reasons of economy, oxygen is often transported in bulk as a liquid in specially insulated tankers, since one litre of liquefied oxygen is equivalent to 840 liters of gaseous oxygen at atmospheric pressure and 20 °C (68 °F).[64] Such tankers are used to refill bulk liquid oxygen storage containersHP Pavilion dv6-1225er battery, which stand outside hospitals and other institutions with a need for large volumes of pure oxygen gas. Liquid oxygen is passed through heat exchangers, which convert the cryogenic liquid into gas before it enters the building. Oxygen is also stored and shipped in smaller cylinders containing the compressed gas; a form that is useful in certain portable medical applications and oxy-fuel welding and cutting. HP Pavilion dv6-1225ei battery

Applications

See also: Breathing gas, Redox, and Combustion

Medical

An oxygen concentrator in an emphysema patient’s house

Main article: Oxygen therapy

Uptake of O2 from the air is the essential purpose of respiration, so oxygen supplementation is used in medicine. Treatment not only increases oxygen levels in the patient’s blood, but has the secondary effect of decreasing resistance to blood flow in many types of diseased lungs, easing work load on the heartHP Pavilion dv6-1225ef battery. Oxygen therapy is used to treat emphysema, pneumonia, some heart disorders (congestive heart failure), some disorders that cause increased pulmonary artery pressure, and any disease that impairs the body’s ability to take up and use gaseous oxygenHP Pavilion dv6-1225ee battery.[75]

Treatments are flexible enough to be used in hospitals, the patient’s home, or increasingly by portable devices. Oxygen tents were once commonly used in oxygen supplementation, but have since been replaced mostly by the use of oxygen masks or nasal cannulasHP Pavilion dv6-1224eo battery.[76]

Hyperbaric (high-pressure) medicine uses special oxygen chambers to increase the partial pressure of O2 around the patient and, when needed, the medical staff.[77] Carbon monoxide poisoning, gas gangrene, and decompression sickness (the ‘bends’) are sometimes treated using these devicesHP Pavilion dv6-1223sl battery.[78] Increased O2 concentration in the lungs helps to displace carbon monoxide from the heme group of hemoglobin.[79][80] Oxygen gas is poisonous to the anaerobic bacteria that cause gas gangrene, so increasing its partial pressure helps kill them.[81][82] Decompression sickness occurs in divers who decompress too quickly after a dive, resulting in bubbles of inert gas, mostly nitrogen and helium, forming in their bloodHP Pavilion dv6-1223sf battery. Increasing the pressure of O2 as soon as possible is part of the treatment.

Oxygen is also used medically for patients who require mechanical ventilation, often at concentrations above the 21% found in ambient air.

Life support and recreational use

Low pressure pure O2 is used in space suits.

A notable application of O2 as a low-pressure breathing gas is in modern space suits, which surround their occupant’s body with pressurized air. These devices use nearly pure oxygen at about one third normal pressure, resulting in a normal blood partial pressure of O2.[85][86] This trade-off of higher oxygen concentration for lower pressure is needed to maintain flexible spacesuitsHP Pavilion dv6-1223eo battery.

Scuba divers and submariners also rely on artificially delivered O2, but most often use normal pressure, and/or mixtures of oxygen and air. Pure or nearly pure O2 use in diving at higher-than-sea-level pressures is usually limited to rebreather, decompression, or emergency treatment use at relatively shallow depths (~6 meters depth, or less). HP Pavilion dv6-1222tx battery Deeper diving requires significant dilution of O2 with other gases, such as nitrogen or helium, to help prevent oxygen toxicity.[87]

People who climb mountains or fly in non-pressurized fixed-wing aircraft sometimes have supplemental O2 supplies.[89] Passengers traveling in (pressurized) commercial airplanes have an emergency supply of O2 automatically supplied to them in case of cabin depressurizationHP Pavilion dv6-1222sl battery. Sudden cabin pressure loss activates chemical oxygen generators above each seat, causing oxygen masks to drop. Pulling on the masks “to start the flow of oxygen” as cabin safety instructions dictate, forces iron filings into the sodium chlorate inside the canister.[41] A steady stream of oxygen gas is then produced by the exothermic reactionHP Pavilion dv6-1222et battery.

Oxygen, as a supposed mild euphoric, has a history of recreational use in oxygen bars and in sports. Oxygen bars are establishments, found in Japan, California, and Las Vegas, Nevada since the late 1990s that offer higher than normal O2 exposure for a fee.[90] Professional athletes, especially in American footballHP Pavilion dv6-1222eo battery, also sometimes go off field between plays to wear oxygen masks in order to get a “boost” in performance. The pharmacological effect is doubtful; a placebo effect is a more likely explanation.[90] Available studies support a performance boost from enriched O2 mixtures only if they are breathed during aerobic exerciseHP Pavilion dv6-1221tx battery.[91]

Other recreational uses that do not involve breathing the gas include pyrotechnic applications, such as George Goble’s five-second ignition of barbecue grills.[92]

Industrial

Most commercially produced O2 is used to smelt iron into steel.

Smelting of iron ore into steel consumes 55% of commercially produced oxygen.[41] In this process, O2 is injected through a high-pressure lance into molten iron, which removes sulfur impurities and excess carbon as the respective oxides, SO2 and CO2HP Pavilion dv6-1221sl battery. The reactions are exothermic, so the temperature increases to 1,700 °C.[41]

Another 25% of commercially produced oxygen is used by the chemical industry.[41] Ethylene is reacted with O2 to create ethylene oxide, which, in turn, is converted into ethylene glycol; the primary feeder material used to manufacture a host of products, including antifreeze and polyester polymers (the precursors of many plastics and fabrics). HP Pavilion dv6-1221eo battery

Most of the remaining 20% of commercially produced oxygen is used in medical applications, metal cutting and welding, as an oxidizer in rocket fuel, and in water treatment.[41] Oxygen is used in oxyacetylene welding burning acetylene with O2 to produce a very hot flame. In this process, metal up to 60 cm thick is first heated with a small oxy-acetylene flame and then quickly cut by a large stream of O2. HP Pavilion dv6-1221ax battery Larger rockets use liquid oxygen as their oxidizer, which is mixed and ignited with the fuel for propulsion.[citation needed]

Scientific

500 million years of climate change vs 18O

Paleoclimatologists measure the ratio of oxygen-18 and oxygen-16 in the shells and skeletons of marine organisms to determine what the climate was like millions of years ago (see oxygen isotope ratio cycle). Seawater molecules that contain the lighter isotope, oxygen-16, evaporate at a slightly faster rate than water molecules containing the 12% heavier oxygen-18HP Pavilion dv6-1220tx battery; this disparity increases at lower temperatures.[94] During periods of lower global temperatures, snow and rain from that evaporated water tends to be higher in oxygen-16, and the seawater left behind tends to be higher in oxygen-18. Marine organisms then incorporate more oxygen-18 into their skeletons and shells than they would in a warmer climateHP Pavilion dv6-1220st battery.[94] Paleoclimatologists also directly measure this ratio in the water molecules of ice core samples that are up to several hundreds of thousands of years old.

Planetary geologists have measured different abundances of oxygen isotopes in samples from the Earth, the Moon, Mars, and meteorites, but were long unable to obtain reference values for the isotope ratios in the SunHP Pavilion dv6-1220ss battery, believed to be the same as those of the primordial solar nebula. However, analysis of a silicon wafer exposed to the solar wind in space and returned by the crashed Genesis spacecraft has shown that the Sun has a higher proportion of oxygen-16 than does the EarthHP Pavilion dv6-1220sp battery. The measurement implies that an unknown process depleted oxygen-16 from the Sun’s disk of protoplanetary material prior to the coalescence of dust grains that formed the Earth.[95]

Oxygen presents two spectrophotometric absorption bands peaking at the wavelengths 687 and 760 nm. Some remote sensing scientists have proposed using the measurement of the radiance coming from vegetation canopies in those bands to characterize plant health status from a satellite platformHP Pavilion dv6-1220so battery.[96] This approach exploits the fact that in those bands it is possible to discriminate the vegetation’s reflectance from its fluorescence, which is much weaker. The measurement is technically difficult owing to the low signal-to-noise ratio and the physical structure of vegetation; but it has been proposed as a possible method of monitoring the carbon cycle from satellites on a global scaleHP Pavilion dv6-1220sh battery.

Compounds

Main article: Compounds of oxygen

Water (H2O) is the most familiar oxygen compound.

The oxidation state of oxygen is ?2 in almost all known compounds of oxygen. The oxidation state ?1 is found in a few compounds such as peroxides.[97] Compounds containing oxygen in other oxidation states are very uncommon: ?1/2 (superoxides), ?1/3 (ozonides), 0 (elemental, hypofluorous acid), +1/2 (dioxygenyl), +1 (dioxygen difluoride), and +2 (oxygen difluoride) HP Pavilion dv6-1220sd battery.

Oxides and other inorganic compounds

Water (H2O) is the oxide of hydrogen and the most familiar oxygen compound. Hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded to oxygen in a water molecule but also have an additional attraction (about 23.3 kJ·mol?1 per hydrogen atom) to an adjacent oxygen atom in a separate molecule. HP Pavilion dv6-1220sb battery These hydrogen bonds between water molecules hold them approximately 15% closer than what would be expected in a simple liquid with just van der Waals forces.[99][100]

Oxides, such as iron oxide or rust form when oxygen combines with other elements.

Due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms chemical bonds with almost all other elements at elevated temperatures to give corresponding oxides. However, some elements readily form oxides at standard conditions for temperature and pressureHP Pavilion dv6-1220sa battery; the rusting of iron is an example. The surface of metals like aluminium and titanium are oxidized in the presence of air and become coated with a thin film of oxide that passivates the metal and slows further corrosion. Some of the transition metal oxides are found in nature as non-stoichiometric compounds, with a slightly less metal than the chemical formula would showHP Pavilion dv6-1220ez battery. For example, the natural occurring FeO (wüstite) is actually written as Fe1 ? xO, where x is usually around 0.05.[101]

Oxygen as a compound is present in the atmosphere in trace quantities in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2). The earth’s crustal rock is composed in large part of oxides of silicon (silica SiO2, found in granite and sand), aluminium (aluminium oxide Al2O3, in bauxite and corundum), iron (iron(III) oxide Fe2O3HP Pavilion dv6-1220ew battery, in hematite and rust), and calcium carbonate (in limestone). The rest of the Earth’s crust is also made of oxygen compounds, in particular various complex silicates (in silicate minerals). The Earth’s mantle, of much larger mass than the crust, is largely composed of silicates of magnesium and ironHP Pavilion dv6-1220ev battery.

Water-soluble silicates in the form of Na4SiO4, Na2SiO3, and Na2Si2O5 are used as detergents and adhesives.[102]

Oxygen also acts as a ligand for transition metals, forming metal–O2 bonds with the iridium atom in Vaska’s complex,[103] with the platinum in PtF6,[104] and with the iron center of the heme group of hemoglobin.

Organic compounds and biomolecules

Acetone is an important feeder material in the chemical industryHP Pavilion dv6-1220er battery.

Oxygen

Carbon

Hydrogen

Oxygen represents more than 40% of the molecular mass of the ATP molecule.

Among the most important classes of organic compounds that contain oxygen are (where “R” is an organic group): alcohols (R-OH); ethers (R-O-R); ketones (R-CO-R); aldehydes (R-CO-H); carboxylic acids (R-COOH); esters (R-COO-R); acid anhydrides (R-CO-O-CO-R); and amides (R-C(O)-NR2) HP Pavilion dv6-1220ek battery. There are many important organic solvents that contain oxygen, including: acetone, methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, furan, THF, diethyl ether, dioxane, ethyl acetate, DMF, DMSO, acetic acid, and formic acid. Acetone ((CH3)2CO) and phenol (C6H5OH) are used as feeder materials in the synthesis of many different substancesHP Pavilion dv6-1220ei battery. Other important organic compounds that contain oxygen are: glycerol, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, citric acid, acetic anhydride, and acetamide. Epoxides are ethers in which the oxygen atom is part of a ring of three atoms.

Oxygen reacts spontaneously with many organic compounds at or below room temperature in a process called autoxidationHP Pavilion dv6-1220eg battery.[105] Most of the organic compounds that contain oxygen are not made by direct action of O2. Organic compounds important in industry and commerce that are made by direct oxidation of a precursor include ethylene oxide and peracetic acid.[102]

The element is found in almost all biomolecules that are important to (or generated by) life. Only a few common complex biomolecules, such as squalene and the carotenes, contain no oxygenHP Pavilion dv6-1220ec battery. Of the organic compounds with biological relevance, carbohydrates contain the largest proportion by mass of oxygen. All fats, fatty acids, amino acids, and proteins contain oxygen (due to the presence of carbonyl groups in these acids and their ester residues). Oxygen also occurs in phosphate (PO3?4) groups in the biologically important energy-carrying molecules ATP and ADPHP Pavilion dv6-1219tx battery, in the backbone and the purines (except adenine) and pyrimidines of RNA and DNA, and in bones as calcium phosphate and hydroxylapatite.

Safety and precautions

Toxicity

Main article: Oxygen toxicity

Main symptoms of oxygen toxicity[106]

Oxygen toxicity occurs when the lungs take in a higher than normal O2 partial pressure, which can occur in deep scuba diving.

Oxygen gas (O2) can be toxic at elevated partial pressures, leading to convulsions and other health problems. Oxygen toxicity usually begins to occur at partial pressures more than 50 kilopascals (kPa), or 2.5 times the normal sea-level O2 partial pressure of about 21 kPa (equal to about 50% oxygen composition at standard pressure) HP Pavilion dv6-1219ez battery. This is not a problem except for patients on mechanical ventilators, since gas supplied through oxygen masks in medical applications is typically composed of only 30%–50% O2 by volume (about 30 kPa at standard pressure).[26] (although this figure also is subject to wide variation, depending on type of mask) HP Pavilion dv6-1218tx battery.

At one time, premature babies were placed in incubators containing O2-rich air, but this practice was discontinued after some babies were blinded by it.[26][109]

Breathing pure O2 in space applications, such as in some modern space suits, or in early spacecraft such as Apollo, causes no damage due to the low total pressures used.[85][110] In the case of spacesuitsHP Pavilion dv6-1218ss battery, the O2 partial pressure in the breathing gas is, in general, about 30 kPa (1.4 times normal), and the resulting O2 partial pressure in the astronaut’s arterial blood is only marginally more than normal sea-level O2 partial pressure (for more information on this, see space suit and arterial blood gas) HP Pavilion dv6-1218ca battery.

Oxygen toxicity to the lungs and central nervous system can also occur in deep scuba diving and surface supplied diving.[26][87] Prolonged breathing of an air mixture with an O2 partial pressure more than 60 kPa can eventually lead to permanent pulmonary fibrosis.[111] Exposure to a O2 partial pressures greater than 160 kPa (about 1.6 atm) may lead to convulsions (normally fatal for divers) HP Pavilion dv6-1217tx battery. Acute oxygen toxicity (causing seizures, its most feared effect for divers) can occur by breathing an air mixture with 21% O2 at 66 m or more of depth; the same thing can occur by breathing 100% O2 at only 6 m.

Combustion and other hazards

The interior of the Apollo 1 Command Module. Pure O2 at higher than normal pressure and a spark led to a fire and the loss of the Apollo 1 crewHP Pavilion dv6-1217ss battery.

Highly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion. Fire and explosion hazards exist when concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought into close proximity; however, an ignition event, such as heat or a spark, is needed to trigger combustion.[115] Oxygen itself is not the fuel, but the oxidant. Combustion hazards also apply to compounds of oxygen with a high oxidative potentialHP Pavilion dv6-1217er battery, such as peroxides, chlorates, nitrates, perchlorates, and dichromates because they can donate oxygen to a fire.

Concentrated O2 will allow combustion to proceed rapidly and energetically.[115] Steel pipes and storage vessels used to store and transmit both gaseous and liquid oxygen will act as a fuel; and therefore the design and manufacture of O2 systems requires special training to ensure that ignition sources are minimizedHP Pavilion dv6-1217ax battery.[115] The fire that killed the Apollo 1 crew in a launch pad test spread so rapidly because the capsule was pressurized with pure O2 but at slightly more than atmospheric pressure, instead of the 1?3 normal pressure that would be used in a mission. HP Pavilion dv6-1216tx battery

Liquid oxygen spills, if allowed to soak into organic matter, such as wood, petrochemicals, and asphalt can cause these materials to detonate unpredictably on subsequent mechanical impact.[115] As with other cryogenic liquids, on contact with the human body it can cause frostbites to the skin and the eyesHP Pavilion dv6-1216ss battery.

Kenya has a land area of 580,000 km2 and a population of nearly 41 million,[6] representing 42 different peoples and cultures.[7] The country is named after Mount Kenya, a significant landmark and second among Africa’s highest mountain peaksHP Pavilion dv6-1102tx battery.

Following a referendum and adoption of a new constitution in August 2010, Kenya is now divided into 47 counties that are semi-autonomous units of governance. These units are expected to be fully implemented by August 2012 – in time for the first general election under the new constitution. The counties will be governed by elected governors and will operate independent of the central government in NairobiHP Pavilion dv6-1102tu battery.

The country’s geography is as diverse as its multi-ethnic population. It has a warm and humid climate along its coastline on the Indian Ocean which changes to wildlife-rich savannah grasslands moving inland towards the capital Nairobi. Nairobi has a cool climate that gets colder approaching Mount KenyaHP Pavilion dv6-1102ax battery, which has three permanently snow-capped peaks. The warm and humid tropical climate reappears further inland towards lake Victoria, before giving way to temperate forested and hilly areas in the western region. The North Eastern regions along the border with Somalia and Ethiopia are arid and semi-arid areas with near-desert landscapesHP Pavilion dv6-1102au battery. The country also has significant geothermal activity that puts a lot of electricity in the national grid.

Kenya’s capital city, Nairobi, is situated next to a national park. The country is famous for its safaris and diverse world-famous wildlife reserves such as Tsavo National Park, the Maasai Mara, Nakuru National Park, and Aberdares National Park that attract tourists from all over the worldHP Pavilion dv6-1101tx battery.

Lake Victoria, the world’s second largest fresh-water lake (after Lake Superior in the US and Canada) and the world’s largest tropical lake, is situated to the southwest and is shared with Uganda and Tanzania.

As part of East Africa, Kenya has seen human habitation since the Lower Paleolithic period. The Bantu expansion reached the area by the first millennium AD, and the borders of the modern state comprise the crossroads of the Niger–CongoHP Pavilion dv6-1101tu battery, Nilo-Saharan, and Afro-Asiatic linguistic areas of Africa, making Kenya a truly multi-cultural state. European and Arab presence in Mombasa dates to the Early Modern period, but European exploration of the interior began only in the 19th century. The British Empire established the East Africa Protectorate in 1895, known from 1920 as the Kenya ColonyHP Pavilion dv6-1101so battery. The independent Republic of Kenya was founded in December 1963.

The capital, Nairobi, is a regional commercial hub. The economy of Kenya is the largest by GDP in East and Central Africa.[8][9] Agriculture is a major employer and the country traditionally exports tea and coffee, and more recently fresh flowers to Europe. The service industry is a major economic driver, mostly the telecommunications sector, and contributes 62 percent of GDPHP Pavilion dv6-1101ax battery.

Kenya is a member of the East African Community and produces world-class athletes such as world champions Paul Tergat, David Rudisha, and Vivian Cheruiyot.

Etymology

Further information: Names on Mount Kenya

The word Kenya’, /?k?nj?/, originates from the Kikuyu, Embu and Kamba names for Mount Kenya, “Kirinyaga”, “Kirinyaa” and “Kiinyaa”.[citation needed] Prehistoric volcanic eruptions of Mount Kenya (now extinct) HP Pavilion dv6-1101au battery may have resulted in its association with divinity and creation among the indigenous Kikuyu-related ethnic groups who are the native inhabitants of the agricultural land surrounding Mount. Kenya.[original research?]

The Wakamba first pointed out the second mountain to Dr. Krapf called “K?-Nyaa” or “K??ma- K??yaa” which is similar to K?r?ma K?r?nyaga in Kikuyu… HP Pavilion dv6-1100sv battery probably because the pattern of black rock and white snow on its peaks reminded them of the feathers of the cock ostrich.[10]

The word “Nyaga” is a Kikuyu – Embu word to mean spot. It is a diminutive for “Manyaganyaga”, Spots. The spots of the black rock and the white snow could be the origin of the words “K?r?-nyaga” which in this case means ’spotted’. Therefore, Mwene- Nyaga (Agikuyu God) means “The owner/guardian of the spotted Mountain”HP Pavilion dv6-1100ss battery.

In the 19th century, the German explorer Ludwig Krapf recorded the name as both Kenia and Kegnia believed by some to be a corruption of the Kamba version.[11][12][13] Others say that this was—on the contrary—a very precise notation of a correct African pronunciation /?k?nj?/.[14] A map drawn by Joseph Thompsons, 1882 a Scottish geologist and Naturalist indicated Mt. Kenya as Mt. Kenia, 18620HP Pavilion dv6-1100so battery.[10]

Geography and climate

Main articles: Geography of Kenya and Climate of Kenya

See also: Environmental issues in Kenya

Mount Kenya is the highest peak in Kenya at 5,199 m (17,057 ft).[15] Kenya is named after the mountain.[16]

At 580,367 km2 (224,081 sq mi),[2] Kenya is the world’s forty-seventh largest country (after Madagascar). It lies between latitudes 5°N and 5°S, and longitudes 34° and 42°E. From the coast on the Indian Ocean, the low plains rise to central highlandsHP Pavilion dv6-1100es battery. The highlands are bisected by the Great Rift Valley; a fertile plateau lies in the east. The Kenyan Highlands comprise one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa. The highlands are the site of the highest point in Kenya (and the second highest in Africa): Mount Kenya, which reaches 5,199 m (17,057 ft) and is the site of glaciers. Mount Kilimanjaro (5,895 m/19,341 ft) can be seen from Kenya to the South of the Tanzanian borderHP Pavilion dv6-1100eo battery.[15]

Kenya’s climate varies from tropical along the coast to temperate inland to arid in the north and northeast parts of the country. Kenya receives a great deal of sunshine all the year round, and summer clothes are worn throughout the year. It is usually cool at night and early in the morning inland at higher elevationsHP Pavilion dv6-1099ef battery. The “long rains” season occurs from March/April to May/June. The “short rains” season occurs from October to November/December. The rainfall is sometimes heavy and often falls in the afternoons and evenings. The temperature remains high throughout these months of tropical rain. The hottest period is February and March, leading into the season of the long rains, and the coldest is in July and AugustHP Pavilion dv6-1090es battery.

Kenya has considerable land area devoted to wildlife habitats, including the Masai Mara, where Blue Wildebeest and other bovids participate in a large scale annual migration. Up to 250,000[citation needed] blue wildebeest perish each year in the long and arduous movement to find forage in the dry season. HP Pavilion dv6-1090eo battery [citation needed] The “Big Five” animals of Africa can be found in Kenya and in the Masai Mara in particular: the lion, leopard, buffalo, rhinoceros and elephant. A significant population of other wild animals, reptiles and birds can be found in the national parks and game reserves in the country. The annual animal migration – especially migration of the wildebeest –HP Pavilion dv6-1080es battery occurs between June and September with millions of animals taking part.

Kenya is the setting for one of the Natural Wonders of the World – the great wildebeest migration. 11.5 million of these ungulates migrate a distance of 1,800 miles from the Serengeti in neighbouring Tanzania to the Masai Mara in Kenya, in a constant clockwise fashion, searching for food and water suppliesHP Pavilion dv6-1080eq battery.

History

Main article: History of Kenya

Prehistory

The African theropod Spinosaurus was the largest known carnivorous dinosaur.

Giant crocodile fossils have been discovered in Kenya, dating from the Mesozoic Era, over 200 million years ago. The fossils were found in an excavation conducted by a team from the University of Utah and the National Museums of Kenya in July–August 2004 at Lokitaung Gorge, near Lake TurkanaHP Pavilion dv6-1080el battery.[17]

Fossils found in East Africa suggest that primates roamed the area more than 20 million years ago. Recent finds near Kenya’s Lake Turkana indicate that hominids such as Homo habilis (1.8 and 2.5 million years ago) and Homo erectus (1.8 million to 350 000 years ago) are possible direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens and lived in Kenya during the Pleistocene epochHP Pavilion dv6-1070eo battery. In 1984 one particular discovery made at Lake Turkana by famous palaeoanthropologist Richard Leakey and Kamoya Kimeu was the skeleton of a Turkana boy belonging to Homo erectus from 1.6 million years ago. Previous research on early hominids is particularly identified with Mary Leakey and Louis LeakeyHP Pavilion dv6-1068el battery, who were responsible for the preliminary archaeological research at Olorgesailie and Hyrax Hill. Later work at the former was undertaken by Glynn Isaac.[citation needed]

Kenya has been inhabited by people for as long as human history has existed.

Pre-colonial history

The first inhabitants of present-day Kenya were hunter-gatherer groups, akin to the modern Khoisan speakersHP Pavilion dv6-1066el battery.[18] These people were later replaced by agropastoralist Cushitic speakers from the Horn of Africa.[19] During the early Holocene the regional climate shifted from dry to wetter climatic conditions, this provided an opportunity for the development of cultural traditions, such as agriculture and herding, in a more favorable environmentHP Pavilion dv6-1062el battery.[18]

Around 500 BC Nilotic speaking pastoralists (ancestral to Kenya’s Nilotic speakers) started migrating from present-day Southern Sudan into Kenya.[20][21][22] Nilotic groups in Kenya include the Samburu, Luo, Turkana, Maasai.[23]

By the first millennium AD, Bantu speaking farmers moved into the region.[24] The Bantus originated in West Africa along the Benue River in what is now eastern Nigeria and western CameroonHP Pavilion dv6-1060ev battery.[25] The Bantu migration brought new developments in agriculture and iron working to the region.[25] Bantu groups in Kenya include the Kikuyu, Luhya, Kamba, Kisii, Meru, Aembu, Ambeere and Mijikenda among others.

Arab traders began frequenting the Kenya coast around the 1st century AD. Kenya’s proximity to the Arabian Peninsula invited colonization, and Arab and Persian settlements sprouted along the coast by the 8th centuryHP Pavilion dv6-1060es battery.

The Kenyan coast had served host to communities of ironworkers and communities of subsistence farmers, hunters and fishers who supported the economy with agriculture, fishing, metal production and trade with foreign countries.[26]

The Great Mosque of Kilwa Kisiwani, one of the many mosques built by the Persian founders of the Kilwa SultanateHP Pavilion dv6-1060eo battery.[27]

The Kilwa Sultanate was a medieval sultanate, centered at Kilwa in modern-day Tanzania. At its height, its authority stretched over the entire length of the Swahili Coast, including Kenya. It was founded in the 10th century by Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi,[28] a Persian Prince of Shiraz.[29] The Persian rulers would go on to build elaborate coral mosques and introduced copper coinageHP Pavilion dv6-1060el battery.[27]

During this period, Arabs from southern Arabia settled on the coast. They established many new autonomous city-states, including Mombasa, Malindi and Zanzibar. The Arab migrants also introduced Islam and the Omani dialect of Arabic to the area. This blending of cultures left a notable Arabian influence on the local Bantu Swahili culture and language of the coastHP Pavilion dv6-1058el battery.[30] The Arabs built Mombasa into a major port city and established trade links with other nearby city-states, as well as commercial centers in Persia, Arabia, and even India.[31] By the 15th-century, Portuguese voyager Duarte Barbosa claimed that “Mombasa is a place of great traffic and has a good harbour in which there are always moored small craft of many kinds and also great shipsHP Pavilion dv6-1056el battery, both of which are bound from Sofala and others which come from Cambay and Melinde and others which sail to the island of Zanzibar.”[32]

In the centuries preceding colonization, the Swahili coast of Kenya was part of the east African region which traded with the Arab world and India especially for ivory and slaves (the Ameru tribe is said to have originated from slaves escaping from Arab lands sometime around the year 1700HP Pavilion dv6-1055ee battery). Initially these traders came mainly from Arab states, but later many came from Zanzibar (such as Tippu Tip).[33] Close to 90% of the population on the Kenya coast was enslaved.[34]

Swahili, a Bantu language with Arabic, Persian, and other Middle Eastern and South Asian loanwords, later developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoplesHP Pavilion dv6-1053cl battery.[26]

Throughout the centuries the Kenyan Coast has played host to many merchants and explorers. Among the cities that line the Kenyan coast is the City of Malindi. It has remained an important Swahili settlement since the 14th century and once rivaled Mombasa for dominance in this part of East AfricaHP Pavilion dv6-1050us battery. Malindi has traditionally been a friendly port city for foreign powers. In 1414, the Arab Sultan of Malindi initiated diplomatic relations with Ming Dynasty China during the voyages of the explorer Zheng He.[35] Malindi authorities welcomed Portuguese explorer, Vasco da Gama, in 1498HP Pavilion dv6-1050et battery.

Colonial history

Main article: History of Kenya#Colonial history

Britain’s possessions in British East Africa during the colonial period.

The colonial history of Kenya dates from the establishment of a German protectorate over the Sultan of Zanzibar’s coastal possessions in 1885, followed by the arrival of the Imperial British East Africa Company in 1888. Incipient imperial rivalry was forestalled when Germany handed its coastal holdings to Britain in 1890HP Pavilion dv6-1050ep battery. This was followed by the building of the Kenya–Uganda railway passing through the country. This was resisted by some tribes — notably the Nandi led by Orkoiyot Koitalel Arap Samoei for ten years from 1895 to 1905 — still the British eventually built the railway. The Nandi were the first tribe to be put in a native reserve to stop them from disrupting the building of the railwayHP Pavilion dv6-1050eo battery. During the railway construction era, there was a significant inflow of Indian peoples, who provided the bulk of the skilled manpower required for construction.[36]

While building the railroad through Tsavo, a number of the Indian railway workers and local African labourers were attacked by two lions known as the Tsavo maneatersHP Pavilion dv6-1050en battery. They and most of their descendants later remained in Kenya and formed the core of several distinct Indian communities such as the Ismaili Muslim and Sikh communities.[37][38]

Statue of Dedan Kimathi, a Kenyan rebel leader with the Mau Mau who fought against British colonization in the 1950s.

At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the governors of British East Africa (as the Protectorate was generally known)HP Pavilion dv6-1050ei battery and German East Africa agreed a truce in an attempt to keep the young colonies out of direct hostilities. Lt Col Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck took command of the German military forces, determined to tie down as many British resources as possible. Completely cut off from Germany, von Lettow conducted an effective guerilla warfare campaignHP Pavilion dv6-1050ef battery, living off the land, capturing British supplies, and remaining undefeated. He eventually surrendered in Zambia eleven days after the Armistice was signed in 1918. To chase von Lettow the British deployed the British Indian Army troops from India and then needed large numbers of porters to overcome the formidable logistics of transporting supplies far into the interior on footHP Pavilion dv6-1046el battery. The Carrier Corps was formed and ultimately mobilised over 400,000 Africans, contributing to their long-term politicisation.[36]

During the early part of the 20th century, the interior central highlands were settled by British and other European farmers, who became wealthy farming coffee and tea.[39] (One depiction of this period of change from one colonist’s perspective is found in the memoir “Out of Africa” by Danish author Baroness Karen von Blixen-FineckeHP Pavilion dv6-1045ez battery, published in 1937.) By the 1930s, approximately 30,000 white settlers lived in the area and gained a political voice because of their contribution to the market economy. The area was already home to over a million members of the Kikuyu people, most of whom had no land claims in European terms, and lived as itinerant farmers. To protect their interestsHP Pavilion dv6-1045eo battery, the settlers banned the growing of coffee, introduced a hut tax, and the landless were granted less and less land in exchange for their labour. A massive exodus to the cities ensued as their ability to provide a living from the land dwindled.[36] By the 1950s, the white population numbered 80,000HP Pavilion dv6-1045ei battery.[40]

Kenya–Uganda railway near Mombasa, about 1899

From October 1952 to December 1959, Kenya was under a state of emergency arising from the Mau Mau rebellion against British rule. The governor requested and obtained British and African troops, including the King’s African Rifles. The British began counter-insurgency operations; in May 1953 General Sir George Erskine took charge as commander-in-chief of the colony’s armed forcesHP Pavilion dv6-1045ee battery, with the personal backing of Winston Churchill.[41]

The capture of War?hi? Itote (aka General China) on 15 January 1954, and the subsequent interrogation led to a better understanding of the Mau Mau command structure. Operation Anvil opened on 24 April 1954, after weeks of planning by the army with the approval of the War CouncilHP Pavilion dv6-1044el battery. The operation effectively placed Nairobi under military siege, and the occupants were screened and the Mau Mau supporters moved to detention camps. The Home Guard formed the core of the government’s strategy as it was composed of loyalist Africans, not foreign forces like the British Army and King’s African RiflesHP Pavilion dv6-1042el battery. By the end of the emergency, the Home Guard had killed 4686 Mau Mau, amounting to 42% of the total insurgents. The capture of Dedan Kimathi on 21 October 1956, in Nyeri signified the ultimate defeat of the Mau Mau and essentially ended the military offensive.[41] During this period, substantial governmental changes to land tenure occurredHP Pavilion dv6-1040ez battery, the most important of which was the Swynnerton Plan, which was used to both reward loyalists and punish Mau Mau.

Post-colonial history

The first direct elections for Africans to the Legislative Council took place in 1957. Despite British hopes of handing power to “moderate” African rivals, it was the Kenya African National Union (KANU) of Jomo Kenyatta that formed a government shortly before Kenya became independent on 12 December 1963HP Pavilion dv6-1040ev battery, on the same day forming the first Constitution of Kenya.[42] During the same year, the Kenyan army fought the Shifta War against ethnic Somalis who wanted Kenya’s Northern Frontier District joined with the Republic of Somalia. The Shifta War officially ended with the signature of the Arusha Memorandum in October, 1967, but relative insecurity prevailed through 1969HP Pavilion dv6-1040el battery.[43][44] To discourage further invasions, Kenya signed a defence pact with Ethiopia in 1969, which is still in effect.[45]

The former Kenyan President and founder of Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta.

On 12 December 1964 the Republic of Kenya was proclaimed, and Jomo Kenyatta became Kenya’s first president.[46] At Kenyatta’s death in 1978, Daniel arap Moi became President. Daniel arap Moi retained the PresidencyHP Pavilion dv6-1040ek battery, being unopposed in elections held in 1979, 1983 (snap elections) and 1988, all of which were held under the single party constitution. The 1983 elections were held a year early, and were a direct result of an abortive military coup attempt on 2 August 1982.

The abortive coup was masterminded by a low ranked Air Force serviceman, Senior Private Hezekiah Ochuka and was staged mainly by enlisted men in the Air ForceHP Pavilion dv6-1040ei battery. The attempt was quickly suppressed by Loyalist forces led by the Army, the General Service Unit (GSU) — a paramilitary wing of the police — and later the regular police, but not without civilian casualties. This event led to the disbanding of the entire Air Force and a large number of its former members were either dismissed or court-martialledHP Pavilion dv6-1040ed battery.

The election held in 1988 saw the advent of the mlolongo (queuing) system, where voters were supposed to line up behind their favoured candidates instead of a secret ballot.[47] This was seen as the climax of a very undemocratic regime and it led to widespread agitation for constitutional reform. Several contentious clausesHP Pavilion dv6-1040eb battery, including one that allowed for only one political party were changed in the following years.[48] In democratic, multiparty elections in 1992 and 1997, Daniel arap Moi won re-election. In 2002, Moi was constitutionally barred from running, and Mwai K?bak?, running for the opposition coalition “National Rainbow Coalition” HP Pavilion dv6-1038ca battery— NARC, was elected President. Anderson (2003) reports the elections were judged free and fair by local and international observers, and seemed to mark a turning point in Kenya’s democratic evolution.[49]

Politics

Main article: Politics of Kenya

Current president Mwai Kibaki

Kenya is a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President is both the head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party systemHP Pavilion dv6-1030us battery. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. There was growing concern especially during former president Daniel arap Moi’s tenure that the executive was increasingly meddling with the affairs of the judiciary. HP Pavilion dv6-1030eq battery

Kenya has maintained remarkable stability despite changes in its political system and crises in neighbouring countries. A cross-party parliamentary reform initiative in the autumn of 1997 revised some oppressive laws inherited from the colonial era that had been used to limit freedom of speech and assembly. This improved public freedoms and contributed to generally credible national elections in December 1997HP Pavilion dv6-1030eo battery.[citation needed]

In December 2002, Kenyans held democratic and open elections, most of which were judged free and fair by international observers. The 2002 elections marked an important turning point in Kenya’s democratic evolution in that power was transferred peacefully from the Kenya African Union (KANU) HP Pavilion dv6-1030em battery, which had ruled the country since independence to the National Rainbow Coalition (Narc), a coalition of political parties.

Under the presidency of Mwai Kibaki, the new ruling coalition promised to focus its efforts on generating economic growth, combating corruption, improving education, and rewriting its constitution. A few of these promises have been met. There is free primary educationHP Pavilion dv6-1030ef battery. In 2007 the government issued a statement declaring that from 2008, secondary education would be heavily subsidised, with the government footing all tuition fees.[citation needed]

2007 elections

Main article: Kenyan presidential election, 2007

Post-election violence in Nairobi

The latest general elections were held on 27 December 2007. In them, President Kibaki under the Party of National Unity ran for re-election against the main opposition party, the Orange Democratic Movement (ODM) HP Pavilion dv6-1030ed battery. The elections were seen to have been flawed with international observers saying that they were below international standards. After a split which would take a crucial 8% of the votes away from the ODM to the newly formed Orange Democratic Movement-Kenya (ODM-K)’s candidate, Kalonzo Musyoka, the race tightened between ODM candidate Raila Odinga and KibakiHP Pavilion dv6-1030ec battery. As the count came in to the Electoral Commission of Kenya (ECK) headquarters, Odinga was shown to have a slight, and then substantial lead as the results from his strongholds came in early. As the ECK continued to count the votes, Kibaki closed the gap and then overtook his opponent by a substantial margin after votes from his stronghold arrived laterHP Pavilion dv6-1030ca battery. This led to protests and open discrediting of the ECK for complicity and to Odinga declaring himself the “people’s president” and calling for a recount.[50]

The protests escalated into ethnic violence and destruction of property, almost 1,000 people were killed and nearly 600,000 displaced. The dispute caused underlying tensions over land and its distribution to re-erupt, as it had in the 1992 and 1997 electionsHP Pavilion dv6-1027ef battery.[53] Hundreds of thousands were forced off their land to relatives elsewhere in the country and some claim weapons are being bought in the region, perhaps in anticipation of the 2012 elections.[53]

A group of eminent persons of Africa, led by former United Nations secretary-general Kofi Annan, brokered a peaceful solution to the political stalemateHP Pavilion dv6-1025ez battery.

2008

Current prime minister Raila Odinga

On 28 February 2008, Kibaki and Odinga signed an agreement on the formation of a coalition government in which Odinga would become Kenya’s second prime Minister. Under the deal, the president would appoint cabinet ministers from both PNU and ODM camps depending on each party’s strength in ParliamentHP Pavilion dv6-1025ei battery. The agreement stipulated that the cabinet would include a vice-president and two deputy Prime Ministers. After being debated and passed by Parliament, the coalition would hold until the end of the current Parliament or if either of the parties withdraws from the deal before then.[citation needed] HP Pavilion dv6-1025ef battery

The new office of the PM will have power and authority to co-ordinate and supervise the functions of the Government and will be occupied by an elected MP who will be the leader of the party or coalition with majority members in Parliament. The world watched Annan and his UN-backed panel and African Union chairman Jakaya Kikwete as they brought together the erstwhile rivals to the signing ceremonyHP Pavilion dv6-1023em battery, beamed live on national TV from the steps of Nairobi’s Harambee House. On 29 February 2008, representatives of PNU and ODM began working on the finer details of the power-sharing agreement.[54] Kenyan lawmakers unanimously approved a power-sharing deal 18 March 2008, aimed at salvaging a country usually seen as one of the most stable and prosperous in AfricaHP Pavilion dv6-1023ef battery. The deal brought Kibaki’s PNU and Odinga’s ODM together and heralded the formation of the grand coalition, in which the two political parties would share power equally.[55]

Grand coalition

On 13 April 2008, President Kibaki named a grand coalition cabinet of 41 Ministers- including the prime minister and his two deputiesHP Pavilion dv6-1022el battery. The cabinet, which included 50 Assistant Ministers, was sworn in at the State House in Nairobi on Thursday, 17 April 2008 in the presence of Dr. Kofi Annan and other invited dignitaries.

A constitutional change was considered that would eliminate the position of Prime Minister[56] and simultaneously reduce the powers of the PresidentHP Pavilion dv6-1020et battery. A referendum to vote on the proposed constitution was held on 4 August 2010, and the new constitution passed by a wide margin.[57] Among other things, the new constitution delegates more power to local governments and gives Kenyans a bill of rights.[58] It was promulgated on 27 August 2010 at a euphoric ceremony in Nairobi’s Uhuru ParkHP Pavilion dv6-1020eg battery, accompanied by a 21-gun salute. The event was graced by a number of African leaders and praised by the international community. As of that day, the new constitution heralding the Second Republic came into force.

Administrative regions

Main articles: Provinces of Kenya, Districts of Kenya, and Divisions of Kenya

Provinces of Kenya

Kenya is divided into 47 semi-autonomous counties that will be headed by governors who will be elected in the first general election under the new constitution in August 2012HP Pavilion dv6-1020el battery (There is still controversy over whether the elections should be held in August or December 2012). Under the old constitution, Kenya comprised eight provinces each headed by a Provincial Commissioner (centrally appointed by the president). The provinces (mkoa singular mikoa plural in Swahili) were subdivided into districts (wilaya) HP Pavilion dv6-1020ek battery. There were 69 districts as of 1999 census. Districts are then subdivided into 497 divisions (taarafa). The divisions are then subdivided into 2,427 locations (mtaa) and then 6,612 sublocations (mtaa mdogo).[59] The City of Nairobi enjoys the status of a full administrative province. The government supervises administration of districts and provinces. The provinces areHP Pavilion dv6-1020ei battery:

Under the current Kenya constitution, local government authorities are not recognized. However, under the old constitution, local governance in Kenya was practised through local authorities. Many urban centres host city, municipal or town councils. Local authorities in rural areas are known as county councils. Local councillors are elected by civic elections, which are held alongside general electionsHP Pavilion dv6-1020ed battery.

Constituencies are an electoral subdivision. An Interim Boundaries commission was formed in year 2010 to review the constituencies and in its report, it recommended creation of additional 80 constituencies. Currently, there are 210 Constituencies in KenyaHP Pavilion dv6-1020ec battery.[60]

Economy

20 shilling note from 1994, depicting then-President Daniel arap Moi

Main article: Economy of Kenya

Despite western donors’ early disillusionment with the government, the economy has seen much expansion, seen by strong performance in tourism, higher education and telecommunications, and acceptable post-drought results in agriculture, especially the vital tea sector.[61] Kenya’s economy grew by more than 7% in 2007HP Pavilion dv6-1018el battery, and its foreign debt was greatly reduced.[61] But this changed immediately after the disputed presidential election of December 2007, following the chaos which engulfed the country.

East and Central Africa’s biggest economy has posted tremendous growth in the service sector, boosted by rapid expansion in telecommunication and financial activity over the last decade, and now contributes 62 percent of GDPHP Pavilion dv6-1001et battery. Unfortunately, a massive 22 percent of GDP still comes from the unreliable agricultural sector which employs 75 percent of the labor force (a consistent characteristic of under-developed economies that have not attained food security – an important catalyst of economic growth) and a significant portion of the population regularly starves and is heavily dependent on food aidHP Pavilion dv6-1001tx battery. Industry and manufacturing is the smallest sector that accounts for 16 percent of the GDP.

Kenya has traditionally been a liberal market with minimal government involvement (price control) seen in the oil industry. However, recent legislation allows the government to determine and gazette price-controls on essential commodities like maize flour, kerosine and cooking oilHP Pavilion dv6-1001xx battery.

Privatisation of state corporations like the defunct Kenya Post and Telecommunications Company, which resulted in East Africa’s most profitable company – Safaricom, has led to their revival due to massive private investment.

As of May 2010, economic prospects are positive with 4–5% GDP growth expected, largely because of expansions in tourism, telecommunicationsHP Pavilion dv6-1002tx battery, transport, construction and a recovery in agriculture. The World Bank predicts growth of 4% in 2010 and a potential of 4.9% growth in 2011.[62]

In March 1996, the Presidents of Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda re-established the East African Community (EAC). The EAC’s objectives include harmonizing tariffs and customs regimes, free movement of people, and improving regional infrastructuresHP Pavilion dv6-1003tx battery. In March 2004, the three East African countries signed a Customs Union Agreement.

The more efficient and lucrative technology-knowledge-and-skill-based service; industry and manufacturing sectors only employ 25 percent of the labor force but contributes the remaining 75 percent of the GDPHP Pavilion dv6-1004tx battery.[61]

Kenya ranks poorly on Transparency International’s corruption perception index.[63]

Kenya is East and Central Africa’s hub for Financial services. The Nairobi Securities Exchange (NSE) is ranked 4th in Africa in terms of Market capitalization.[citation needed] The Kenya banking system is supervised by the Central Bank of Kenya (CBK) HP Pavilion dv6-1005ea battery. As of late July 2004, the system consisted of 43 commercial banks (down from 48 in 2001), several non-bank financial institutions, including mortgage companies, four savings and loan associations, and several score foreign-exchange bureaus.[61]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Kenya

Tourists on a safari in Kenya

Kenya’s services sector, which contributes about 63 percent of GDP, is dominated by tourism. The tourism sector has exhibited steady growth in most years since independence and by the late 1980s had become the country’s principal source of foreign exchangeHP Pavilion dv6-1005ez battery. Tourists, the largest number from Germany and the United Kingdom, are attracted mainly to the coastal beaches and the game reserves, notably, the expansive Tsavo National Park (20,808 square kilometers) in the southeast. Tourism has seen a substantial revival over the past several years and is the major contributor to the pick-up in the country’s economic growthHP Pavilion dv6-1005tx battery. Tourism is now Kenya’s largest foreign exchange earning sector, followed by flowers, tea, and coffee. In 2006 tourism generated US$803 million, up from US$699 million the previous year.

Agriculture

Main article: Agriculture in Kenya

Cultivation on the slopes of Mount Kenya

Agriculture is the second largest contributor to Kenya’s gross domestic product (GDP), after the service sector. In 2005 agriculture, including forestry and fishing, accounted for about 24 percent of GDPHP Pavilion dv6-1006tx battery, as well as for 18 percent of wage employment and 50 percent of revenue from exports. The principal cash crops are tea, horticultural produce, and coffee; horticultural produce and tea are the main growth sectors and the two most valuable of all of Kenya’s exports. The production of major food staples such as corn is subject to sharp weather-related fluctuationsHP Pavilion dv6-1007tx battery. Production downturns periodically necessitate food aid—for example, in 2004 aid for 1.8 million people because of one of Kenya’s intermittent droughts.[citation needed] Tea, coffee, sisal, pyrethrum, corn, and wheat are grown in the fertile highlands, one of the most successful agricultural production regions in AfricaHP Pavilion dv6-1008tx battery. Livestock predominates in the semi-arid savanna to the north and east. Coconuts, pineapples, cashew nuts, cotton, sugarcane, sisal, and corn are grown in the lower-lying areas.

Unfortunately, the country has not attained the level of investment and efficiency in agriculture that can guarantee food security and coupled with resulting poverty (53 percent of the population lives below the poverty line) HP Pavilion dv6-1009el battery, a significant portion of the population regularly starves and is heavily dependent on food aid. Poor roads, an inadequate railway network, under-utilised water transport and expensive air transport have isolated mostly arid and semi-arid areas and farmers in other regions often leave food to rot in the fields because they cannot access marketsHP Pavilion dv6-1009tx battery. This was last seen in August and September 2011 prompting the Kenyans for Kenya initiative by the Red Cross.[64]

Industry and manufacturing

Although Kenya is the most industrially developed country in East Africa, manufacturing still accounts for only 14 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). Industrial activity, concentrated around the three largest urban centers, Nairobi, Mombasa, and KisumuHP Pavilion dv6-1010ea battery, is dominated by food-processing industries such as grain milling, beer production, and sugarcane crushing, and the fabrication of consumer goods, e.g., vehicles from kits. There is a vibrant and fast growing cement production industry.[citation needed] Kenya has an oil refinery that processes imported crude petroleum into petroleum productsHP Pavilion dv6-1010ed battery, mainly for the domestic market. In addition, a substantial and expanding informal sector commonly referred to as Jua Kali engages in small-scale manufacturing of household goods, motor-vehicle parts, and farm implements.[citation needed]

Kenya’s inclusion among the beneficiaries of the U.S. Government’s African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) has given a boost to manufacturing in recent years. Since AGOA took effect in 2000HP Pavilion dv6-1010et battery, Kenya’s clothing sales to the United States increased from US$44 million to US$270 million (2006).[citation needed] Other initiatives to strengthen manufacturing have been the new government’s favorable tax measures, including the removal of duty on capital equipment and other raw materials. HP Pavilion dv6-1010tx battery

Energy

Logo of KenGen, the largest electricity producer in Kenya.

The largest share of Kenya’s electricity supply comes from hydroelectric stations at dams along the upper Tana River, as well as the Turkwel Gorge Dam in the west. A petroleum-fired plant on the coast, geothermal facilities at Olkaria (near Nairobi), and electricity imported from Uganda make up the rest of the supplyHP Pavilion dv6-1011tx battery. Kenya’s installed capacity stood at 1,142 megawatts between 2001 and 2003. The state-owned Kenya Electricity Generating Company (KenGen), established in 1997 under the name of Kenya Power Company, handles the generation of electricity, while the Kenya Power and Lighting Company (KPLC), which is slated for privatization, handles transmission and distributionHP Pavilion dv6-1012tx battery. Shortfalls of electricity occur periodically, when drought reduces water flow. To become energy sufficient, Kenya aims to build a nuclear power plant by 2017.[65]

Workers at Olkaria Geothermal Power Plant

Hydrocarbon reserves have yet to be discovered on Kenya’s territory, despite several decades of intermittent exploration. Kenya currently imports all crude petroleum requirementsHP Pavilion dv6-1013ea battery. Kenya, east Africa’s largest economy, has no strategic reserves and relies solely on oil marketers’ 21-day oil reserves required under industry regulations. Petroleum accounts for 20 to 25 percent of the national import bill.[66]

Although Kenya is yet to give a formal indication of where its exploration program, which now involves half a dozen companies, is headed, in recent weeks, well-placed sources in Uganda’s oil industry have suggested that the country is on the verge on making an announcement that could cement East Africa’s position as major oil region on the continentHP Pavilion dv6-1013tx battery. Optimism surrounding the Kenyan program is informed by recent oil discoveries in Uganda that, combined with the fact that the rocks that form the East African Rift System are about the same age, suggests a high potential for oil in Kenya. Gas discoveries in Tanzania and significant proven oil reserves along the border between Uganda and DR Congo have also encouraged interest in the once largely overlooked regionHP Pavilion dv6-1016ez battery. Reacting to the current speculation about prospects for an early oil find, senior geologists at Uganda’s Energy Ministry who were at the forefront of the country’s search for oil two decades ago, said they had no reason to doubt that there was oil in Kenya, with the area around Lake Turkana and the coastal belt being singled out as the most promising prospects. HP Pavilion dv6-6091nr battery

Before its exit mid this year, China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) had worked with Africa Oil and Lion Energy Corp to drill an exploratory well in block 9 in northern Kenya. It also had a license for block L2, an inland area in the Lamu basinHP Pavilion dv6-6090us battery.[67]

Vision 2030

In 2007, the Kenyan government unveiled Vision 2030, an economic blueprint it hopes will put the country in the same league as the Asian Economic Tigers by the year 2030.

Oil exploration

On 26 March 2012, Kenyan President Mwai Kibaki announced that oil had been discovered in the Turkana District after exploratory drilling by Anglo-Irish firm Tullow Oil, and he further stated that HP Pavilion dv6-6090sf battery“It is… the beginning of a long journey to make our country an oil producer, which typically takes in excess of three years. We shall be giving the nation more information as the oil exploration process continues[68]

Early in 2006 Chinese President Hu Jintao signed an oil exploration contract with Kenya, the latest in a series of deals designed to keep Africa’s natural resources flowing to China’s rapidly expanding economyHP Pavilion dv6-6087eg battery.

The deal allowed for China’s state-controlled offshore oil and gas company, CNOOC, to prospect for oil in Kenya, which is just beginning to drill its first exploratory wells on the borders of Sudan and Somalia and in coastal waters. No oil has been discovered yet, and there has been no formal estimate of the possible reservesHP Pavilion dv6-6063sf battery.[69]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Kenya

Kikuyu woman in traditional attire.

Kenya has a young population, with 73% of residents aged below 30 years, due to rapid population growth;[70] from 2.9 million to 40 million over the last century.[71]

Kenya’s rising urban population has a diverse ethnic background whose people are variedly fluent in their mother tongues and the two official languages – English and Swahili. Peri-urban and rural populations are less multilingual with many in remote villages speaking only their mother tongueHP Pavilion dv6-6054sf battery.

Ethnic groups

Kikuyu 22%, Luhya 14%, Luo 13%, Kalenjin 12%, Kamba 11%, Kisii 6%, Meru 6%, other African 15%, non-African (Asian, European, and Arab) 1%.[2]

In addition, Kenya’s capital, Nairobi, is home to Kibera, one of the world’s largest slums. The shanty town is believed to house between 170,000[72] and 1 million locals.[73] The UNHCR base in Dadaab in the north also currently houses around 500,000 peopleHP Pavilion dv6-6054ef battery.[74]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Kenya

Holy Ghost RC cathedral in Mombasa.

The vast majority of Kenyans are Christian (83%), with 47.7% regarding themselves as Protestant and 23.5% as Roman Catholic.[75] Sizeable minorities of other faiths do exist (Muslim 11.2%, indigenous beliefs 1.7%).[75] Sixty percent of the Muslim population lives in Coast Province, comprising 50 percent of the total population thereHP Pavilion dv6-6051xx battery. Western areas of Coast Province are mostly Christian. The upper part of Eastern Province is home to 10 percent of the country’s Muslims, where they constitute the majority religious group.[76] In addition, there is a large Hindu population in Kenya (around 50,000), who have played a key role in the local economy. There is also a small group of Baha’isHP Pavilion dv6-6051sf battery.[77]

Health

Main article: Health in Kenya

See also: Healthcare in Kenya

Despite major achievements in the health sector, Kenya still faces many challenges. Recent life expectancy estimates are approximately 55 years in 2009 – five years below 1990 levels.[78] Too many women and children still die at birth or within the first year of life. More die before their 5th birthdayHP Pavilion dv6-6042sf battery.

Preventable diseases such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, pneumonia, diarrhea and malnutrition are the major child killers and responsible for much morbidity. Weak policies, inadequate health workers, weak management and poor leadership in most public health facilities are largely to blame. According to 2009 estimatesHP Pavilion dv6-6029tx battery, HIV prevalence is about 6.3% of the adult population.[79] However, the 2011 UNAIDS Report suggests that the HIV epidemic may be improving in Kenya, as HIV prevalence is declining among young people (ages 15–24) and pregnant women.[80]

The total fertility rate in Kenya is estimated to be 4.49 children per woman in 2012.[81] Maternal mortality is high, partly because of female genital mutilationHP Pavilion dv6-6027tx battery.[61] This practice is however on the decline as the country becomes more modernised and the practice was also banned in the country in 2011.[82]

Education

Main article: Education in Kenya

School children in a classroom.

Kenya’s education system consists of early childhood education, primary, secondary and college.The country’s literacy level stands at 85% of the whole population. Early childhood education takes at least three years, primary eight years, secondary four and university four or six years depending on the courseHP Pavilion dv6-6026tx battery. Preschool, which targets children from age three to five, is an integral component of the education system and is a key requirement for admission to Standard One (First Grade). At the end of primary education, pupils sit the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE), which determines those who proceed to secondary school or vocational training. Primary school age is 6/7-13/14 yearsHP Pavilion dv6-6025tx battery. For those who proceed to secondary level, there is a national examination at the end of Form Four – the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE), which determines those proceeding to the universities, other professional training or employment. The Joint Admission Board (JAB) is responsible for selecting students joining the public universities. Other than the public schoolsHP Pavilion dv6-6024tx battery, there are many private schools in the country, mainly in urban areas. Similarly, there are a number of international schools catering for various overseas educational systems.

Historical background

Independent Kenya’s first system of education was introduced by British colonists.[83] After Kenya’s independence on 12 December 1963, an authority named the Ominde Commission was formed to introduce changes that would reflect the nation’s sovereigntyHP Pavilion dv6-6023tx battery. The commission focused on identity and unity, which were critical issues at the time. Changes in the subject content of history and geography were made to reflect national cohesion. Between 1964 and 1985, the 7–4–2–3 system was adopted – seven years of primary, four years of lower secondary, two years of upper secondary, and three years of university. All schools had a common curriculumHP Pavilion dv6-6022eg battery.[83]

In 1981, the Presidential Working Party on the Second University was commissioned to look at both the possibilities of setting up a second university in Kenya as well as the reforming of the entire education system.[83] The committee recommended that the 7–4–2–3 system be changed to an 8–4–4 system (eight years in primary, four years in secondary, and four years in university education) HP Pavilion dv6-6013tu battery. The table under Present-day education in Kenya below shows the structure of the 8–4–4 system. Although the 7–4–2–3 system theoretically ended with the introduction of the new 8–4–4 system in 1985, the last batch of students from the former system graduated from Kenyan Universities in 1992HP Pavilion dv6-6013cl battery.[83]

Present-day education in Kenya

An MSc student at Kenyatta University in Nairobi

The current 8–4–4 system was launched in January 1985.[84][85] It put more emphasis on vocational subjects on the assumption that the new structure would enable school dropouts at all levels either to be self-employed or to secure employment in the informal sectorHP Pavilion dv6-6012tu battery.

In January 2003, the Government of Kenya announced the introduction of free primary education. As a result, primary school enrollment increased by about 70%. Secondary and tertiary education enrollment has not increased proportionally because payment is still required for attendanceHP Pavilion dv6-6011tu battery.

In class eight of primary school the Kenya Certificate of Primary Examination (K.C.P.E.) is taken. The result of this examination is needed for placement at secondary school. In form four of secondary schools the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Examination (K.C.S.E.) is taken. Students sit examinations in eight subjects of their choosingHP Pavilion dv6-6008tx battery. However, English, KiSwahili (Languages) and Mathematics are compulsory subjects.

Private schooling also exists in Kenya.

In 2007 the government issued a statement declaring that from 2008, secondary education would be heavily subsidized, with the government footing all tuition feesHP Pavilion dv6-6008sa battery.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Kenya

Dressed up Maasai warriors

Kenya is a diverse country. Notable peoples include the Swahili on the coast, pastoralist communities in the north, and several different communities in the central and western regions. The Maasai culture is well known because of tourism, despite being a minor percentage of the Kenyan population. They are renowned for their elaborate upper body adornment and jewelryHP Pavilion dv6-6008eg battery.

Kenya has an extensive music, television and theatre scene.

Literature

Main article: Literature of Kenya

Ng?g? wa Thiong’o is one of the best known writers of Kenya. His book, Weep Not, Child is an illustration of life in Kenya during the British occupation. This is a story about the effects of the Mau Mau on the lives of black Kenyans. Its combination of themes—colonialism, education, and love—helped to make it one of the best-known novels in AfricaHP Pavilion dv6-6007tx battery.

M.G. Vassanji’s 2003 novel The In-Between World of Vikram Lall won the Giller Prize in 2003. It is the fictional memoir of a Kenyan of Indian heritage and his family as they adjust to the changing political climates in colonial and post-colonial Kenya.

Since 2003, the literary journal Kwani? has been publishing Kenyan contemporary literatureHP Pavilion dv6-6007sg battery.

Music

Main article: Music of Kenya

Popular Kenyan musician Jua Cali.

Kenya has a diverse assortment of popular music forms, in addition to multiple types of folk music based on the variety over 40 regional languages.[86]

The guitar is the most dominant instrument in Kenyan popular music. Guitar rhythms are very complex and include both native beats and imported ones, especially the Congolese cavacha rhythmHP Pavilion dv6-6006ea battery; music usually involves the interplay of multiple parts and, more recently, showy guitar solos.

Lyrics are most often in Swahili or English. There’s also some emerging aspect of Lingala borrowed from Congo musicians. Lyrics are also written in the indigenous languages, though urban radio will generally not play music in one of the “tribal” languages. This however has been seen through the emergence of vernacular radio stations that broadcast in native languagesHP Pavilion dv6-6005sg battery.

Benga music has been popular since the late 1960s, especially around Lake Victoria. The word benga is occasionally used to refer to any kind of pop music. bass, guitar and percussion are the usual instruments.

Zanzibaran taarab music has also become popular, as has hip hop, reggae, soul, soukous, zouk, rock and roll, funk and EuropopHP Pavilion dv6-6005eg battery.

Sports

Main article: Sport in Kenya

Kenya is active in several sports, among them cricket, rallying, football (soccer), rugby union and boxing. But the country is known chiefly for its dominance in Middle-distance and long-distance athletics. Kenya has consistently produced Olympic and Commonwealth Games champions in various distance eventsHP Pavilion dv6-6005ea battery, especially in 800 m, 1,500 m, 3,000 m steeplechase, 5,000 m, 10,000 m and the marathon. Kenyan athletes (particularly Kalenjin) continue to dominate the world of distance running, although competition from Morocco and Ethiopia has reduced this supremacy. Kenya’s best-known athletes included the four-time women’s Boston Marathon winner and two-time world champion Catherine NderebaHP Pavilion dv6-6004sa battery, former Marathon world record-holder Paul Tergat, and John Ngugi.

Top Kenyan middle-distance runner, David Rudisha.

Kenya won several medals during the Beijing Olympics, five gold, five silver and four bronze, making it Africa’s most successful nation in the 2008 Olympics. New athletes gained attention, such as Pamela Jelimo, the women’s 800m gold medalist who went ahead to win the IAAF Golden League jackpot, and Samuel Wanjiru who won the men’s marathonHP Pavilion dv6-6003eg battery. Retired Olympic and Commonwealth Games champion Kipchoge Keino helped usher in Kenya’s ongoing distance dynasty in the 1970s and was followed by Commonwealth Champion Henry Rono’s spectacular string of world record performances. Lately, there has been controversy in Kenyan athletics circles, with the defection of a number of Kenyan athletes to represent other countries, chiefly Bahrain and QatarHP Pavilion dv6-6002sg battery.[87] The Kenyan Ministry of Sports has tried to stop the defections, but they have continued anyway, with Bernard Lagat the latest, choosing to represent the United States.[87] Most of these defections occur because of economic or financial factors. Some elite Kenyan runners who cannot qualify for their country’s strong national team find it easier to qualify by running for other countries. HP Pavilion dv6-6002eg battery Kenya has been a dominant force in women’s volleyball within Africa, with both the clubs and the national team winning various continental championships in the past decade.[citation needed] The women’s team has competed at the Olympics and World Championships but without any notable success. Cricket is another popular and the most successful team sportHP Pavilion dv6-6001sg battery. Kenya has competed in the Cricket World Cup since 1996. They upset some of the World’s best teams and reached semi-finals of the 2003 tournament. They won the inaugural World Cricket League Division 1 hosted in Nairobi and participated in the World T20. Their current captain is Collins Obuya. They participated in the ICC Cricket World Cup 2011HP Pavilion dv6-6001eg battery. Kenya is represented by Lucas Onyango as a professional rugby league player who plays with Oldham Roughyeds. Besides the former European Super League team, he has played for Widnes Vikings and rugby union with Sale Sharks.[88] Rugby union is increasing in popularity. It is popular in Kenya especially with the annual Safari Sevens tournamentHP Pavilion dv6-6001ea battery. Kenya sevens team ranked 9th in IRB Sevens World Series for the 2006 season. Kenya was a regional power in soccer but its dominance has been eroded by wrangles within the Kenya Football Federation.[89] This has led to a suspension by FIFA which was lifted in March, 2007. In the motor rallying arena, Kenya is home to the world famous Safari RallyHP Pavilion dv6-6000eg battery, commonly acknowledged as one of the toughest rallies in the world,[90] and a part of the World Rally Championship for many years until its exclusion after the 2002 event owing to financial difficulties. Some of the best rally drivers in the world have taken part in and won the rally, such as Björn Waldegård, Hannu Mikkola, Tommi MäkinenHP Pavilion dv6-6000 battery , Shekhar Mehta, Carlos Sainz and Colin McRae. Though the rally still runs annually as part of the Africa rally championship, the organisers are hoping to be allowed to rejoin the World Rally championship in the next couple of years.

The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century. Nicaragua achieved its independence from Spain in 1821. Since its independence, Nicaragua has undergone periods of political unrest(Sony VAIO VGN-AW170C battery), military intervention by the United States, dictatorship, and fiscal crisis—the most notable causes that led to the Nicaraguan Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Prior to the revolution, Nicaragua was one of Central America’s wealthiest and most developed countries. The revolutionary conflict, paired with a 1972 earthquake, reversed the country’s prior economic standing(Sony VAIO VGN-AW19/Q battery). Nicaragua is a representative democratic republic, and has experienced economic growth and political stability in recent years. In 1990, Nicaragua elected Violeta Chamorro as its president, making it the first country in Latin American history and the second in the Western Hemisphere to democratically elect a female head of state(Sony VAIO VGN-AW19 battery).

The population of Nicaragua, approximately 6 million, is multiethnic. Roughly a quarter of the population lives in the capital city, Managua; it is the second-largest city in Central America. Segments of the population include indigenous native tribes from the Mosquito Coast, Europeans, Africans, Asians, and people of Middle Eastern origin(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21M/H battery). The main language is Spanish, although native tribes on the eastern coast speak their native languages, such as Miskito, Sumo, and Rama, as well as English Creole. The mixture of cultural traditions has generated substantial diversity in art and literature, particularly the later given the various literary contributions of Nicaraguan writers(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21S/B battery), including Rubén Darío, Ernesto Cardenal, and Gioconda Belli.[6] The biological diversity, warm tropical climate, and active volcanoes make Nicaragua an increasingly popular tourist destination.[7][8]

Etymology

The origin of the name “Nicaragua” is somewhat unclear; in one theory it is a portmanteau coined by Spanish colonists based on the name Nicarao, chief of the most populous indigenous tribe and agua, the Spanish word for water(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21VY/Q battery).[9] Another theory is that it may have meant “surrounded by water” or “sweet sea” in an indigenous language.[10] The surrounding water might refer to the country’s two largest lakes, Lake Nicaragua—the largest in Central America and the 19th largest in the world—and Lake Managua. Alternatively, it might refer to its east and west ocean boundaries(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21XY/Q battery).

[edit]History

Main article: History of Nicaragua

See also: Spanish colonization of the Americas and Political history of Nicaragua

[edit]Pre-Columbian history

2,100-year-old human footprints preserved in volcanic mud near Lake Managua

In pre-Columbian times, in what is now known as Nicaragua, the indigenous people were part of the Intermediate Area, between the Mesoamerican and Andean cultural regions, and within the influence of the Isthmo-Colombian area(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21Z/B battery). It was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met. This is confirmed by the ancient footprints of Acahualinca, along with other archaeological evidence, mainly in the form of ceramics and statues made of volcanic stone, such as the ones found on the island of Zapatera in Lake Nicaragua and petroglyphs found on Ometepe island(Sony VAIO VGN-AW230J/H battery). The Pipil migrated to Nicaragua from central Mexico after 500 B.C.[11]

By the end of the 15th century, western Nicaragua was inhabited by several indigenous peoples related by culture to the Mesoamerican civilizations of the Aztec and Maya, and by language to the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area.[12] They were primarily farmers who lived in towns, organized into small kingdoms(Sony VAIO VGN-AW235J/B battery).

Meanwhile, the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by other peoples, mostly Chibcha language groups. They had coalesced in Central America and migrated also to present-day northern Colombia and nearby areas.[13] They lived a life based primarily on hunting and gathering.[14] Joined by waters(Sony VAIO VGN-AW270Y/Q battery), the people of eastern Nicaragua traded with, and were influenced by, other native peoples of the Caribbean. Round thatched huts and canoes, both typical of the Caribbean, were commonly crafted and used in eastern Nicaragua.

In the west and highland areas, occupying the territory between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Coast, the Niquirano were governed by chief Nicarao(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31M/H battery), or Nicaragua. The wealthy ruler lived in Nicaraocali, site of the present-day city of Rivas. The Chorotega lived in the central region of Nicaragua. Without women in their parties, the Spanish conquerors took Niquirano and Chorotega wives and partners, beginning the multi-ethnic mix of native and European stock now known as mestizo(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31S/B battery), which constitutes the great majority of population in western Nicaragua.[12] Within three decades after European contact, what had been an estimated Indian population of one million plummeted. Scientists and historians estimate approximately half of the indigenous people in western Nicaragua died from the rapid spread of new infectious diseases carried by the Spaniards(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31XY/Q battery), such as smallpox and measles, to which the Indians had no immunity. The indigenous people of the Caribbean coast escaped the epidemics due to the remoteness of their area. Their societies continued more culturally intact as a result.[12]

[edit]The Spanish conquest

Main article: Conquista

Farthest extent of Spanish colonization in America.

Red: Farthest extent of Spanish colonies under the House of Bourbon in the 1790s.

Pink: Disputed claims of Spanish colonial administration.

Purple: Portuguese colonies under dual Spanish colonial administration- conquest, settlement and political rule over much of the Western Hemisphere(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31ZJ/B battery)

Colonial expansion under the Spanish Empire was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by the Monarchy of Spain through its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Christian faith through indigenous conversions(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF/H battery).

In 1502, Christopher Columbus was the first European known to have reached what is now Nicaragua as he sailed southeast toward the Isthmus of Panama. On his fourth voyage, Columbus explored the Misquito Coast on the Atlantic side of Nicaragua.[15] The first attempt to conquer what is now known as Nicaragua was by Gil González Dávila,[16] who arrived in Panama in January 1520(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF battery).

González claimed to have converted some 30,000 indigenous peoples to Christianity and discovered a possible trans-isthmian water link. After exploring and gathering gold in the fertile western valleys, González was attacked by the indigenous people, some of whom were commanded by Nicarao and an estimated 3,000 led by the chief Diriangén(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF/H battery).[17] González later returned to Panama, where Governor Pedro Arias Dávila tried to arrest him and confiscate his treasure, some 90,000 pesos of gold. González escaped to Santo Domingo.

It was not until 1524 that the first Spanish permanent settlements were founded.[16] Conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba founded two of Nicaragua’s principal towns in 1524(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF battery): Granada on Lake Nicaragua was the first settlement, followed by León at a location west of Lake Managua. Córdoba soon built defenses for the cities and attacked against incursions by the other conquistadors. Córdoba was later publicly beheaded following a power struggle with Pedro Arias Dávila. His tomb and remains were discovered in 2000 in the ruins of León Viejo(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH/Q battery).[18]

The clashes among Spanish forces did not impede their destruction of the indigenous people and their culture. The series of battles came to be known as The War of the Captains.[19] By 1529, the conquest of Nicaragua was complete. Several conquistadors came out winners, while they executed or murdered others(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH battery). Pedro Arias Dávila was a winner—although he had lost control of Panama, he moved to Nicaragua and successfully established his base in León. Through adroit diplomatic machinations, he became the first governor of the colony.[18]

The land was parceled out to the conquistadors, who were most interested in the western portion(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF/B battery). They enslaved many indigenous people as labor to develop and maintain estates there. Others were put to work in mines in northern Nicaragua, some were killed in warfare. The great majority were sold as slaves, and shipped to other Spanish colonies in the New World, at a significant profit to the newly landed aristocracy(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF battery). Many indigenous people died as a result of new infectious diseases, compounded by neglect by the Spaniards, who controlled their subsistence.[16]

[edit]Colonization to independence

Corn Island off the Atlantic Coast was a British protectorate until it was ceded along with the rest of the Mosquito Coast to Nicaragua

The Fortress of the Immaculate Conception was constructed in the late 17th century to protect locals in neighboring Granada from pirate attacks. Today, it is one of the country’s main tourist attractions(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M Battery).

Founding members of the Deutsche Club in Nicaragua 1901

In 1536, the Viceroyalty of New Spain was established. By 1570, the southern part of New Spain was designated the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The area of Nicaragua was divided into administrative “parties” with León as the capital. In 1610, the Momotombo volcano erupted, destroying the capital. It was rebuilt northwest of what is now known as the Ruins of Old León(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S Battery).

During the American Revolutionary War, Central America was subject to conflict between Britain and Spain, as Britain sought to expand its influence beyond coastal logging and fishing communities in present-day Belize, Honduras and Nicaragua(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M Battery). Horatio Nelson led expeditions against San Fernando de Omoa in 1779 and the San Juan in 1780, which had temporary success before being abandoned due to disease. In turn, the Spanish colonial leaders could not completely eliminate British influences along the Mosquito Coast(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z Battery).

The Captaincy General of Guatemala was dissolved in September 1821 with the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire, and Nicaragua became part of the First Mexican Empire. After the monarchy of the First Mexican Empire was overthrown in 1823, Nicaragua joined the newly formed United Provinces of Central America(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z Battery), which was later renamed as the Federal Republic of Central America. Nicaragua finally became an independent republic in 1838.[20]

Rivalry between the liberal elite of León and the conservative elite of Granada characterized the early years of independence and often degenerated into civil war, particularly during the 1840s and 1850s(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M Battery). Invited by the Liberals in 1855 to join their struggle against the Conservatives, a United States adventurer and filibuster named William Walker set himself up as president of Nicaragua, after conducting a farcical election in 1856.[21] Costa Rica, Honduras and other Central American countries united to drive Walker out of Nicaragua in 1857, (SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S Battery) after which a period of three decades of Conservative rule ensued.

Great Britain, which had claimed the Mosquito Coast as a protectorate since 1655, delegated the area to Honduras in 1859 before transferring it to Nicaragua in 1860. The Mosquito Coast remained an autonomous area until 1894. José Santos Zelaya, president of Nicaragua from 1893–1909(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S Battery), negotiated the annexation of the Mosquito Coast to the rest of Nicaragua. In his honor, the region was named Zelaya Department.

In the 19th century, Nicaragua attracted many immigrants, primarily from Europe. In particular, families from Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Belgium emigrated to set up businesses with money they brought from Europe. They established many agricultural businesses(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M Battery), such as coffee and sugar-cane plantations, and also newspapers, hotels and banks.

Throughout the late 19th century, the United States (and several European powers) considered a scheme to build a canal across Nicaragua, linking the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic.[24] A bill was put before the U.S. Congress in 1899 to build the canal, which failed to pass; construction of the Panama Canal was begun instead(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z Battery).

[edit]United States intervention (1909–33)

See also: United States occupation of Nicaragua and Nicaragua Canal

Augusto César Sandino

In 1909, the United States provided political support to conservative-led forces rebelling against President Zelaya. U.S. motives included differences over the proposed Nicaragua Canal, Nicaragua’s potential as a destabilizing influence in the region, and Zelaya’s attempts to regulate foreign access to Nicaraguan natural resources(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M Battery). On November 18, 1909, U.S. warships were sent to the area after 500 revolutionaries (including two Americans) were executed by order of Zelaya. The U.S. justified the intervention by claiming to protect U.S. lives and property. Zelaya resigned later that year.

In August 1912 the President of Nicaragua, Adolfo Díaz, requested that the Secretary of War, General Luis Mena(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L Battery), resign for fear that he was leading an insurrection. Mena fled Managua with his brother, the Chief of Police of Managua, to start an insurrection. When the U.S. Legation asked President Díaz to ensure the safety of American citizens and property during the insurrection he replied that he could not and that… (SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J Battery)

“In consequence my Government desires that the Government of the United States guarantee with its forces security for the property of American Citizens in Nicaragua and that it extend its protection to all the inhabitants of the Republic.[25]         ”

U.S. Marines occupied Nicaragua from 1912 to 1933,[26] except for a nine month period beginning in 1925(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery). From 1910 to 1926, the conservative party ruled Nicaragua. The Chamorro family, which had long dominated the party, effectively controlled the government during that period. In 1914, the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty was signed, giving the U.S. control over the proposed canal, as well as leases for potential canal defenses(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery).[27] Following the evacuation of U.S. Marines, another violent conflict between liberals and conservatives took place in 1926, known as the Constitutionalist War, which resulted in a coalition government and the return of U.S. Marines.[28]

From 1927 until 1933, Gen. Augusto César Sandino led a sustained guerrilla war first against the Conservative regime and subsequently against the U.S. Marines(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J Battery), who withdrew upon the establishment of a new Liberal government. Sandino was the only Nicaraguan general to refuse to sign the el tratado del Espino Negro agreement and then headed up to the northern mountains of Las Segovias, where he fought the U.S. Marines for over five years.[29] When the Americans left in 1933, they set up the Guardia Nacional (National Guard) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E Battery),[30] a combined military and police force trained and equipped by the Americans and designed to be loyal to U.S. interests. Anastasio Somoza García, a close friend of the American government, was put in charge. He was one of the three rulers of the country, the others being Sandino and the President Juan Bautista Sacasa(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/W Battery).

After the U.S. Marines withdrew from Nicaragua in January 1933, Sandino and the newly elected Sacasa government reached an agreement by which he would cease his guerrilla activities in return for amnesty, a grant of land for an agricultural colony, and retention of an armed band of 100 men for a year(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/P Battery).[31] But a growing hostility between Sandino and Somoza led Somoza to order the assassination of Sandino.[30][32][33] Fearing future armed opposition from Sandino, Somoza invited him to a meeting in Managua, where Sandino was assassinated on February 21 of 1934 by soldiers of the National Guard(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/W Battery). Hundreds of men, women, and children from Sandino’s agricultural colony were executed later.[34]

[edit]The Somoza dynasty (1936–79)

Anastasio Somoza García and his sons Luis Somoza Debayle (left) and Anastasio Somoza Debayle (right).

Nicaragua has experienced several military dictatorships, the longest being the hereditary dictatorship of the Somoza family for much of the 20th century. The Somoza family came to power as part of a US-engineered pact in 1927 that stipulated the formation of the Guardia Nacional(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/S Battery), or the National Guard, to replace the US marines that had long reigned in the country.[35] Somoza slowly eliminated officers in the National Guard who might have stood in his way, and then deposed Sacasa and became president on January 1, 1937 in a rigged election.[30] Somoza was 35 at the time(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/P Battery).

Nicaragua declared war on Germany on December 8, 1941, during World War II.[36] Although war was formally declared, no soldiers were sent to the war, but Somoza did seize the occasion to confiscate attractive properties held by German-Nicaraguans, the best-known of which was the Montelimar estate which today operates as a privately owned luxury resort and casino(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S/S Battery).[37] In 1945 Nicaragua was among the first countries to ratify the United Nations Charter.[38]

Throughout his years as dictator, “Tacho” Somoza ‘ruled Nicaragua with a strong arm’.[34] He had three main sources for his power: control of Nicaraguan economy, military support, and support from the US. When Somoza used the National Guard to take power in 1937, he destroyed any potential armed resistance(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/W Battery).[39] Not only did he have military control, but he controlled the National Liberal Party (LPN), which in turn controlled the legislature and judicial systems, giving him complete political power.

Despite his complete control, on September 21, 1956, Somoza was shot by Rigoberto López Pérez, a 27-year-old liberal Nicaraguan poet. Somoza was attending a PLN party to celebrate his nomination for the Presidency(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/P Battery). He died eight days later. After his father’s death, Luis Somoza Debayle, the eldest son of the late dictator, was appointed President by the congress and officially took charge of the country.[30] He is remembered by some for being moderate, but was in power only for a few years and then died of a heart attack. Then came president René Schick Gutiérrez whom most Nicaraguans viewed “as nothing more than a puppet of the Somozas”(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z/S Battery).[40] Somoza’s brother, Anastasio Somoza Debayle, a West Point graduate, succeeded his father in charge of the National Guard, controlled the country, and officially took the presidency after Schick.

Nicaragua experienced economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s largely as a result of industrialization,[41] and became one of Central America’s most developed nations(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/W Battery). Due to its stable and high growth economy, foreign investments grew, primarily from U.S. companies such as Citigroup, Sears, Westinghouse, Coca Cola, Bank of America, Chase Manhattan Bank, “Morgan Guaranty Trust and Wells Fargo Bank.[citation needed] Other investors included London Bank and the Bank of Montreal. (SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/S Battery)

The capital city of Managua suffered a major earthquake in 1972 which destroyed nearly 90% of the city, creating major losses,[42] and leveling a 600-square block area in the heart of Managua. Some Nicaraguan historians see the 1972 earthquake that devastated Managua as the final ‘nail in the coffin’ for Somoza(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/W Battery). Instead of helping to rebuild Managua, Somoza siphoned off relief money to help pay for National Guard luxury homes, while the homeless poor had to make do with hastily constructed wooden shacks. The mishandling of relief money also prompted Pittsburgh Pirates star Roberto Clemente to personally fly to Managua on 31 December 1972(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/P Battery), but he died enroute in an airplane accident.[43] Even the economic elite were reluctant to support Somoza, as he had acquired monopolies in industries that were key to rebuilding the nation,[44] and did not allow the businessmen to compete with the profits that would result.

In 1973, the year of reconstruction, many new buildings were built, but the level of corruption in the government prevented further growth(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S/S Battery). Strikes and demonstrations developed as citizens became increasingly angry and politically mobilized. The elite were angry that Somoza was asking them to pay new emergency taxes to further his own ends. As a result, more of the young elite joined the Sandinista Liberation Front (FSLN) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/W Battery). The ever increasing tensions and anti-government uprisings slowed growth in the last two years of the Somoza dynasty.

[edit]Nicaraguan Revolution

Main articles: Nicaraguan Revolution, FSLN, and Junta of National Reconstruction

In 1961 Carlos Fonseca turned back to the historical figure of Sandino, and along with two others founded the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN).[30] Fonseca turned to the KGB and Cuba’s DGI for arms and assistance(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/S Battery). The FSLN was a small party throughout most of the 1960s, but Somoza’s apparent hatred of it and his heavy-handed treatment of anyone he suspected to be a Sandinista sympathizer gave many ordinary Nicaraguans the idea that the Sandinistas were much stronger.[citation needed] (SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z/S Battery)

After the 1972 earthquake and Somoza’s apparent corruption, alleged mishandling of relief aid, and refusal to rebuild Managua, the ranks of the Sandinistas were flooded with young disaffected Nicaraguans who no longer had anything to lose.[39] These economic problems propelled the Sandinistas in their struggle against Somoza by leading many middle- and upper-class Nicaraguans to see the Sandinistas as the main hope for removing the brutal Somoza regime(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11ZR/S Battery).

In December 1974, a group of FSLN, in an attempt to kidnap U.S. Ambassador Tuner Shelton, held some Managuan partygoers hostage (after killing the host, former Agriculture Minister Jose Maria Castillo), until the Somozan government met their demands for a large ransom and free transport to Cuba. Somoza granted this(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11S/S Battery), then subsequently sent his National Guard out into the countryside to look for the perpetrators of the kidnapping, described by opponents of the kidnapping as ‘terrorists’. While searching, the National Guard allegedly pillaged villages and imprisoned, tortured, raped, and executed hundreds of villagers. This led to the Roman Catholic Church withdrawing support of the Somoza regime(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11SR/S Battery). Around this time, Chilean president Salvador Allende was removed from power in a military coup that prompted Allende to take his own life as the presidential palace came under fire. With right-wing Augusto Pinochet in power in Chile, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined the Sandinista army in Nicaragua(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M/S Battery).[45]

On January 10, 1978, Pedro Joaquin Chamorro, the editor of the national newspaper La Prensa and ardent opponent of Somoza, was assassinated.[46] This allegedly led to the extreme general disappointment with Somoza. It is alleged that the planners and perpetrators of the murder were at the highest echelons of the Somoza regime and included the dictator’s son(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11MR/S Battery), “El Chiguin” (“The Kid”), the President of Housing, Cornelio Hueck, the Attorney General, and Pedro Ramos, a Cuban expatriate and close ally, who commercialized blood plasma.[46]

Nicaraguan refugees, 1979

The Sandinistas, supported by some of the populace, elements of the Catholic Church, and regional governments (including Panama, Mexico, Costa Rica, and Venezuela), took power in July 1979. The Carter administration(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L/S Battery), refusing to act unilaterally, decided to work with the new government, while attaching a provision for aid forfeiture if it was found to be assisting insurgencies in neighboring countries.[47] A group of prominent citizens known as Los Doce, “the Twelve”, denounced the Somoza regime and said that “there can be no dialogue with Somoza(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J/S Battery)… because he is the principal obstacle to all rational understanding … through the long dark history of Somocismo, dialogues with the dictatorship have only served to strengthen it”, Somoza fled the country and eventually ended up in Paraguay, where he was assassinated in September 1980, allegedly by members of the Argentinian Revolutionary Workers Party(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E/S Battery).[48]

To begin the task of establishing a new government, the Sandinistas created a Council (or junta) of National Reconstruction of five members: Sandinista militants Daniel Ortega, Moises Hassan, novelist Sergio Ramírez Mercado (a member of Los Doce), businessman Alfonso Robelo Callejas(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11ER/S Battery), and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (the widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro). Sandinista supporters thus comprised three of the five members of the junta.

The non-Sandinistas Robelo and Chamorro later resigned because they had little actual power in the junta. Sandinista mass organizations were also powerful: including the Sandinista Workers’ Federation (Central Sandinista de Trabajadores) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS115N/S Battery), the Luisa Amanda Espinoza Association of Nicaraguan Women (Asociación de Mujeres Nicaragüenses Luisa Amanda Espinoza), and the National Union of Farmers and Ranchers (Unión Nacional de Agricultores y Ganaderos).

On the Atlantic Coast a small uprising occurred in support of the Sandinistas. A group of Creoles led by a native of Bluefields, Dexter Hooker (known as Commander Abel) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/W Battery), raided a Somoza-owned business to gain access to food, guns and money before heading off to join Sandinista fighters who had liberated the city of El Rama. The ‘Black Sandinistas’ returned to Bluefields on July 19, 1979 and took the city without a fight. The Black Sandinistas were challenged by a group of mestizo Sandinista fighters(SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/S Battery). The ensuing standoff between the two groups, with the Black Sandinistas occupying the National Guard barracks (the cuartel) and the mestizo group occupying the Town Hall (Palacio), gave the revolution on the Atlantic Coast a racial dimension absent from events in other parts of the country(SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/L Battery). The Black Sandinistas were assisted in their power struggle with the Palacio group by the arrival of the Simón Bolívar International Brigade from Costa Rica.

One of the brigade’s members, an Afro-Costa-Rican called Marvin Wright (known as Kalalu) became known for his rousing speeches, which included elements of Black Power ideology, in his attempts to unite all black militias that had formed in Bluefields(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L/S Battery). The introduction of a racial element into the revolution was not welcomed by the Sandinista National Directorate, which expelled Kalalu and the rest of the brigade from Nicaragua and sent them to Panama.[49]

[edit]Sandinistas and the Contras

Main articles: FSLN, Contras, Iran-Contra scandal, and Nicaragua v. United States

ARDE Frente Sur Contras in 1987(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J/S Battery)

Robert Pastor, President Carter’s National Security Advisor on Latin America explained why the administration had to back Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza untill he could no longer be sustained to then move to bar the FSLN from power through the “preservation of existing institutions, especially the National Guard” [50] even though it had been massacring the population “with a brutality a nation usually reserves for its enemy. (SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E/S Battery)“:

“The United States did not want to control Nicaragua or the other nations in the region, but it also did not want to allow developments to get out of control. It wanted Nicaraguans to act independently, except when doing so would affect U.S. interests adversely.” (Sony VAIO VGN-SR94VS battery)

Shortly after Somoza fled to Miami, National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski declared that “we have to demonstrate that we are still the decisive force in determining the political outcomes in Central America.” [52] As the Sandinista forces entered the capital, the Carter administration “began setting the stage for a counter revolution(Sony VAIO VGN-SR94HS battery),” Peter Kornbluh observes. On July 19, a U.S. plane disguised with Red Cross markings evacuated the remnants of the National Guard to Miami. The old Guardia was then built into the counter revolutionary force known as the ‘Contras’ by the C.I.A. [53]

On assuming office in 1981, US President Ronald Reagan condemned the FSLN for joining with Cuba in supporting Marxist revolutionary movements in other Latin American countries such as El Salvador(Sony VAIO VGN-SR94GS battery). Reagan said he was also concerned about the growing Soviet and Cuban presence in Nicaragua, and the Soviet hope to turn Nicaragua into a “second Cuba”.

In contrast to the administration’s warnings of a ‘Soviet beachead’ in Nicaragua, the June 1984 Bureau of Intelligence and Research report, “Soviet Attitudes Towards, Aid to, and Contacts with Central American Revolutionaries(Sony VAIO VGN-SR94FS battery),” reported that “Soviet military aid to Nicaragua is unobtrusive and sometimes ephemeral.” The author of the report, Dr. Carl Jacobsen found that “the limited amounts of truly modern equipment acquired by the Sandinistas . . . came from Western Europe not the Eastern bloc.” (Sony VAIO VGN-SR93YS battery)The report concluded that “all too many US claims proved open to question” and that “the scope and nature of the Kremlin’s intrusion are far short of justifying the President’s exaggerated alarms.” [54]

Furthermore, the International Court of Justice determined that “the evidence is insufficient to satisfy the Court that(Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG battery), since the early months of 1981, assistance has continued to reach the Salvadorian armed opposition from the territory of Nicaragua on any significant scale, or that the Government of Nicaragua was responsible for any flow ofarms at either period.” [55]

Under the Reagan Doctrine, his administration authorized the CIA to have paramilitary officers from their elite Special Activities Division begin financing, arming(Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG/H battery), training and advising rebels, some of whom were the remnants of Somoza’s National Guard, as anti-Sandinista guerrillas that were branded “counter-revolutionary” by leftists (contrarrevolucionarios in Spanish).[56] This was shortened to Contras, a label the anti-socialist forces chose to embrace. Edén Pastora and many of the indigenous guerrilla forces unassociated with the “Somozistas” also resisted the Sandinistas(Sony VAIO VGN-SR55TF/B battery). The Contras operated out of camps in the neighboring countries of Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south.[56] As was typical in guerrilla warfare, they were engaged in a campaign of economic sabotage in an attempt to combat the Sandinista government and disrupted shipping by planting underwater mines in Nicaragua’s Port of Corinto(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF battery),[57] an action condemned by the International Court of Justice as illegal.[58] The US also sought to place economic pressure on the Sandinistas, and the Reagan administration imposed a full trade embargo.[59]

US support for this Nicaraguan insurgency continued in spite of the fact that impartial observers from international groupings such as the European Economic Community, religious groups sent to monitor the election(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF/W battery), and observers from democratic nations such as Canada and the Republic of Ireland concluded that the Nicaraguan general elections of 1984 were completely free and fair. The Reagan administration disputed these results, despite the fact that the government of the United States never had any observers in Nicaragua at the time(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B battery).

The Reagan administration critisized the elections as a “sham” based on the charge that Arturo Cruz, the candidate nominated by the Coordinadora Democrática Nicaragüense, comprising three rightwing political parties, did not participate in the elections. However, the administration privately argued against Cruz’s participation for fear his involvement would legitimize the elections(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/S battery). U.S. officials admitted to the New York Times that “The Administration never contemplated letting Cruz stay in the race because then the Sandinistas could justifiably claim that the elections were legitimate, making it much harder for the United States to oppose the Nicaraguan Government.” (Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/P battery)

After the U.S. Congress prohibited federal funding of the Contras in 1983, the Reagan administration continued to back the Contras by covertly selling arms to Iran and channeling the proceeds to the Contras (the Iran–Contra affair).[61] When this scheme was revealed, Reagan admitted that he knew about the Iranian “arms for hostages” dealings but professed ignorance about the proceeds funding the Contras(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49VN/H battery); for this, National Security Council aide Lt. Col. Oliver North took much of the blame.

Senator John Kerry’s 1988 U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report on Contra-drug links concluded that “senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras’ funding problems.”[62] According to the National Security Archive(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D battery), Oliver North had been in contact with Manuel Noriega, a Panamanian general and the de facto military dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989 when he was overthrown and captured by a U.S. invading force.[63] He was taken to the United States, tried for drug trafficking, and imprisoned in 1992.(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D/Q battery)

In August 1996, San Jose Mercury News reporter Gary Webb published a series titled Dark Alliance, linking the origins of crack cocaine in California to the Contras.[65] Freedom of Information Act inquiries by the National Security Archive and other investigators unearthed a number of documents showing that White House officials(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D/J battery), including Oliver North, knew about and supported using money raised via drug trafficking to fund the Contras. Sen. John Kerry’s report in 1988 led to the same conclusions; major media outlets, the Justice Department, and Reagan denied the allegations.[66]

The International Court of Justice, in regard to the case of Nicaragua v. United States in 1984, found(Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J battery); “the United States of America was under an obligation to make reparation to the Republic of Nicaragua for all injury caused to Nicaragua by certain breaches of obligations under customary international law and treaty-law committed by the United States of America”.[67] United States however rejected and did not comply with the judgement under the ‘Connally Amendment’(Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J/J battery) (part of the conditional participation of USA in the International court of Justice, which excludes from ICJ’s jurisdiction “disputes with regard to matters that are essentially within the jurisdiction of the United States of America, as determined by the United States of America”).[68]

[edit]1990s and the post-Sandinista era

Violeta Barrios de Chamorro in 1990 became the first female president democratically elected in the Americas(Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J/B battery).

The Nicaraguan general election, 1990 saw the defeat of the Sandinistas by a coalition of anti-Sandinista (from the left and right of the political spectrum) parties led by Violeta Chamorro, the widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro. The defeat shocked the Sandinistas, as numerous pre-election polls had indicated a sure Sandinista victory(Sony VAIO VGN-SR46TD/B battery), and their pre-election rallies had attracted crowds of several hundred thousand people.[69] The unexpected result was subject to extensive analysis and comment. Commentators such as Noam Chomsky and Brian Willson attributed the outcome to the U.S./Contra threats to continue the war if the Sandinistas retained power(Sony VAIO VGN-SR46MD/B battery), the general war-weariness of the Nicaraguan population, and the abysmal Nicaraguan economic situation.[citation needed]

During the run-up to Nicaragua’s elections in 1990, the Bush administration continued the strategy of trying to terrorize the population into voting the government out.

The C.I.A. manual, “Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare” under the subheading(Sony VAIO VGN-SR46GD battery), “Implicit and Explicit Terror” instructs the Contras that “If the government police cannot put an end to the guerrilla activities, the population will lose confidence in the government, which has the inherent mission of guaranteeing the safety of citizens.” [70]“The United States wanted the contras kept intact in their Honduran bases to ensure Nicaraguan compliance with commitments to democratic and electoral change,” the Washington Post reported(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/W battery). [71] Boston Globe editor Randolph Ryan observed, Washington is sending “an implicit message..to the Nicaraguan electorate: If you want a secure peace, vote for the opposition.” [72]

The Canadian Observer Mission’s four-week investigation of the electoral process in Nicaragua reported that the U.S. “is doing everything it can to disrupt the elections set for next year”(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/P battery): “American intervention is the main obstacle to the attainment of free and fair elections in Nicaragua,” the report stated. It added further that the Contras are “waging a campaign of intimidation with the clear message,`if you support the (Sandinista government), we will be back to kill you’.” The observer mission estimates that the contras killed 42 people in “election violence” in October(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/B battery). [73] In it’s review of 1989, Human Rights Watch condemned the Bush administration for trying to sabotage the elections with terror tactics by sustaining the death squads with aid and encouraging attacks on the electoral process. [74]

On November 8, 1989, the White House announced that the embargo against Nicaragua would continue unless Violeta Chamorro won(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H battery). [75] The Bush administration also financed Chamorro’s campaign with a $9 million election aid package through the National Endowment for Democracy. Edgar Chamorro, a former Contra leader who later became a critic of the CIA-Contra war, said ‘For Nicaraguans, the choice was simple(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/P battery): continued war, poverty and inflation or opposition candidate Violeta Barrios de Chamorro’..”They were not electing a president, they were electing a way out.” President elect Chamorro surmised that ensuing problems such as 16,000% inflation “eroded the credibility of the government” and led people to realize that “if the Sandinistas won, the pain would continue.” (Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/N battery)

Time Magazine noted that U.S. policy was to:

“wreck the economy and prosecute a long and deadly proxy war until the exhausted natives overthrow the unwanted government themselves. Since 1985 Washington has strangled Nicaraguan trade with an embargo. It has cut off Nicaragua’s credit at the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/B battery). The contra war cost Managua tens of millions and left the country with wrecked bridges, sabotaged power stations and ruined farms. The impoverishment of the people of Nicaragua was a harrowing way to give the National Opposition Union (U.N.O.) a winning issue. Nicaragua had been devastated by a 40% drop in G.N.P. (Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/W battery), an inflation rate running at 1,700% a year and constant shortages of food and basic necessities. At least 30,000 people had been killed in the war, and 500,000 more had fled.” [77]

Thomas Walker, a specialist on Central America, writes: “The voters chose a candidate of Washington’s choice with a ‘gun held to their heads’, as was clear to many impartial observers.” (Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/S battery)

P. J. O’Rourke countered the US-centered criticism in his book Give War a Chance, saying “the unfair advantages of using state resources for party ends, about how Sandinista control of the transit system prevented UNO supporters from attending rallies, how Sandinista domination of the army forced soldiers to vote for (Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/P battery)Ortega and how Sandinista bureaucracy kept $3.3 million of U.S. campaign aid from getting to UNO while Daniel Ortega spent millions donated by overseas people and millions and millions more from the Nicaraguan treasury …”[79]

Exit polls of Nicaraguans reported Chamorro’s victory over Ortega was achieved with 55% majority(Sony VAIO VGN-SR3CW/B battery).[80] Violeta Chamorro was the first female President of Nicaragua, and also the first woman to be popularly elected for this position in any American nation. Exit polling convinced Daniel Ortega that the election results were legitimate, and were instrumental in his decision to accept the vote of the people and step down rather than void the election(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39XN/S battery). Ortega vowed that he would govern desde abajo (from below);[81] in other words due to his widespread control of institutions and Sandinista individuals in all government agencies, he would still be able to maintain control and govern even without being president.

President of Nicaragua, Daniel Ortega, in 2008

Chamorro came to office with an economy in ruins. The per capita income of Nicaragua had been reduced by over 80% during the 1980s(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39VN/S battery), and a huge government debt had ascended to US$12 billion, primarily due to the financial and social costs of the Contra war with the Sandinista-led government.[82] Much to the surprise of the U.S. and the contra forces, Chamorro did not dismantle the Sandinista Popular Army, although the name was changed to the Nicaraguan Army(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D battery). Chamorro’s main contribution to Nicaragua was the disarmament of groups in the northern and central areas of the country. This provided the stability which the country had lacked for over ten years.

In the next election, the Nicaraguan general election, 1996, Daniel Ortega and the Sandinistas of the FSLN were again defeated, this time by Arnoldo Alemán of the Constitutional Liberal Party (PLC) (Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D/Q battery).

In the 2001 elections, the Bush administration attempted to link the Sandinistas with the “War on Terror” as a way of intimidating the population into voting for the U.S. candidate. A State Department press release declared “we have grave reservations about the FSLN’s history(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D/J battery).”

John F. Keane, Director of the Office of Central American Affairs at the State Department warned: “It would be dishonest of me not to acknowledge that the possibility of the election of a Sandinista government is disconcerting to the US government. We cannot forget that Nicaragua became a refuge for violent political extremists from the Middle East(Sony VAIO VGN-SR38 battery), from Europe and from Latin America. We are reminded of it daily by the continuing presence of some members of the FSLN leadership, including some very close to candidate Ortega, such as Tomás Borge, Lenín Cerna and Álvaro Baltodano, who perpetrated many of these abominations(Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/Q battery). Given their past record, why should we believe their statements that they have changed if they have done nothing concrete to demonstrate it…? We are confident that the Nicaraguan people will reflect on the nature and history of the candidates and choose wisely.”

In response, Daniel Ortega maintained, “We have already expressed our readiness to support the fight against international terrorism(Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/P battery). But any action must be based on the consensus of the international community, respect for international law, and not run counter to the system of the United Nations.” [83] [84]

In the 2001 elections, the PLC again defeated the FSLN, with Enrique Bolaños winning the Presidency. President Bolaños subsequently brought forward allegations of money laundering, theft and corruption against former President Alemán(Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/B battery). The ex-president was convicted and sentenced to 20 years in prison for embezzlement, money laundering, and corruption.[85] Liberal members who were loyal to Alemán and also members of congress reacted angrily, and along with Sandinista parliament members, stripped the presidential powers of President Bolaños and his ministers, calling for his resignation and threatening impeachment(Sony VAIO VGN-SR37TN/B battery).

The Washington Post explained the victory. The U. S. supported candidate “focused much of his campaign on reminding people of the economic and military difficulties of the Ortega era.” [86]

The Sandinistas alleged that their support for Bolaños was lost when U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell told Bolaños to keep his distance from the FSLN(Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/S battery).[87] This “slow motion coup d’état” was averted partially due to pressure from the Central American presidents, who vowed not to recognize any movement that removed Bolaños; the U.S., the OAS, and the European Union also opposed the “slow motion coup d’état”.[88] The proposed constitutional changes, to be introduced in 2005 against the Bolaños administration(Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/P battery), were delayed until January 2007 after the entrance of the new government. One day before they were due to be enforced, the National Assembly postponed their enforcement until January 2008.

Before the general elections on 5 November 2006, the National Assembly passed a bill further restricting abortion in Nicaragua 52-0 (9 abstaining, 29 absent) (Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/B battery). President Enrique Bolaños supported this measure, and signed the bill into law on 17 November 2006.[89] As a result, Nicaragua is one of five countries in the world where abortion is illegal with no exceptions, along with Chile, Malta, El Salvador,[90] and the Vatican City.

In the 2006 elections, Paul Trivelli, the US ambassador to Nicaragua issued a vigorous warning to the electorate against supporting Daniel Ortega(Sony VAIO VGN-SR35M/B battery). The ambassador said that an Ortega administration talked of a mixed economy and renegotiating CAFTA, the trade agreement between the U.S. and Central America – would force Washington to “re-evaluate” relations. “He has made it pretty clear what kind of model he would put in place. And I think that under those conditions . . . (Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/S battery) would definitely be re-examined – and not only by the executive or the State Department or the White House but by the US Congress,” he said.

The Financial Times emphasized: “It is no secret that the US is determined to prevent the spread of populist politics along the lines practised by Mr Chávez.” [91]

Roger Noriega, the Bush administration’s onvoy to Latin America, in the Managua newspaper La Prensa warned the population that Nicaragua will “sink like a stone and reach depths such as those of Cuba” if the Sandinistas returned to office – Refering to the 50 year old United States embargo against Cuba(Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/P battery).

Otto Reich, former head the illegal domestic propaganda operation in the Office of Public Diplomacy declared: “If he [Ortega] wins, there will be no foreign investment and no US aid.” [92]

Legislative and presidential elections took place on November 5, 2006. Daniel Ortega returned to the presidency with 37.99% of the vote(Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/B battery). This percentage was enough to win the presidency outright, due to a change in electoral law which lowered the percentage requiring a runoff election from 45% to 35% (with a 5% margin of victory).[93]

Nicaragua’s 2011 general election resulted in re-election of Daniel Ortega.

[edit]Government

Main article: Politics of Nicaragua

Politics of Nicaragua takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Nicaragua is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system(Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H battery). Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.

Between 2007–2009, Nicaragua’s major political parties discussed the possibility of going from a presidential system to a parliamentary system. Their reason: there would be a clear differentiation between the head of government (Prime Minister)(Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/S battery) and the head of state (President). Nevertheless, it was later argued that the true reason behind this proposal was to find a legal way for current President Ortega to stay in power after January 2012 (this is when his second and last government period ends).

[edit]Presidential election

Cid Gallup

Military

Main article: Military of Nicaragua

C-47 is used in Nicaragua and Air Force equipment.

The armed forces of Nicaragua consists of various military contingencies. Nicaragua has an Army, Navy and Air Force. There are roughly 14,000 active duty personnel(Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/P battery), which is much less compared to the numbers seen during the Nicaraguan Revolution. Although the army has had a rough military history, a portion of its forces, which were known as the National Guard became integrated with what is now the National Police of Nicaragua. In essence, the police became a gendarmerie(Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/B battery). The National Police of Nicaragua are rarely, if ever, labeled as a gendarmerie. The other elements and manpower that were not devoted to the National Police were sent over to cultivate the new Army of Nicaragua.

The age to serve in the armed forces is 17 and conscription is not imminent. As of 2006, the military budget was roughly 0.7% of Nicaragua’s expenditures(Sony VAIO VGN-SR31M/S battery).

[edit]Departments and municipalities

Main articles: Departments of Nicaragua and Municipalities of Nicaragua

Departments of Nicaragua

Nicaragua is a unitary republic. For administrative purposes it is divided into 15 departments (departamentos) and two self-governing regions (autonomous communities) based on the Spanish model. The departments are then subdivided into 153 municipios (municipalities) (Sony VAIO VGN-SR29XN/S battery). The two autonomous regions are ‘Región Autónoma Atlántico Norte’ and ‘Región Autónoma Atlántico Sur’, often referred to as RAAN and RAAS, respectively; until they were granted autonomy in 1985 they formed the single department of Zelaya.[97]

Geography and climate

Main articles: Geography of Nicaragua and Climate of Nicaragua

See also: Volcanoes of Nicaragua and Wildlife of Nicaragua(Sony VAIO VGN-SR29VN/S battery)

Mombacho Volcano Natural Reserve

Nicaragua occupies a landmass of 130,967 km2 (50,567 sq mi), comparable to that of Greece or the state of Alabama. It lies between latitudes 10° and 15°N, and longitudes 82° and 88°W.

Nearly one fifth of the territory is designated as protected areas like national parks, nature reserves, and biological reserves. The country is bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean to the east(Sony VAIO VGN-SR28/Q battery), Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Geophysically, Nicaragua is surrounded by the Caribbean Plate, an oceanic tectonic plate underlying Central America and the Cocos Plate. Since Central America is a major subduction zone, Nicaragua hosts most of the Central American Volcanic Arc(Sony VAIO VGN-SR28/J battery).

Nicaragua has three distinct geographical regions: the Pacific lowlands, fertile valleys which the Spanish colonists settled, the Amerrisque Mountains (North-central highlands), and the Mosquito Coast (Atlantic lowlands). The low plains of the Atlantic Coast are 60 miles wide in areas. They have long been exploited for their natural resources(Sony VAIO VGN-SR28/B battery).

[edit]Pacific lowlands

Nicaragua is known as the land of lakes and volcanoes; pictured is Concepción volcano, as seen from Maderas volcano.

In the west of the country, these lowlands consist of a broad, hot, fertile plain. Punctuating this plain are several large volcanoes of the Cordillera Los Maribios mountain range(Sony VAIO VGN-SR27TN/B battery), including Mombacho just outside Granada, and Momotombo near León. The lowland area runs from the Gulf of Fonseca to Nicaragua’s Pacific border with Costa Rica south of Lake Nicaragua. Lake Nicaragua is the largest freshwater lake in Central America (20th largest in the world),[98] and is home to some of the world’s only freshwater sharks (Nicaraguan shark(Sony VAIO VGN-SR26MN/B battery)).[99] The Pacific lowlands region is the most populous, with over half of the nation’s population. The capital city of Managua is the most populous and is the only city with over 1.5 million inhabitants.

Scarlet Tanager passing through Nicaragua around April, and again around October.

The eruptions of western Nicaragua’s 40 volcanoes, many of which are still active, have sometimes devastated settlements but also have enriched the land with layers of fertile ash(Sony VAIO VGN-SR26GN/B battery). The geologic activity that produces vulcanism also breeds powerful earthquakes. Tremors occur regularly throughout the Pacific zone, and earthquakes have nearly destroyed the capital city, Managua, more than once.[100]

Most of the Pacific zone is tierra caliente, the “hot land” of tropical Spanish America at elevations under 2,000 feet (610 m). Temperatures remain virtually constant throughout the year, with highs ranging between 85 and 90 °F (29.4 and 32.2 °C) (Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/S battery). After a dry season lasting from November to April, rains begin in May and continue to October, giving the Pacific lowlands 40 to 60 inches (1,016 to 1,524 mm) of precipitation. Good soils and a favorable climate combine to make western Nicaragua the country’s economic and demographic center. The southwestern shore of Lake Nicaragua lies within 15 miles (24 km) of the Pacific Ocean(Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/P battery). Thus the lake and the San Juan River were often proposed in the 19th century as the longest part of a canal route across the Central American isthmus. Canal proposals were periodically revived in the 20th and 21st centuries.[100][101] Roughly a century after the opening of the Panama Canal, the prospect of a Nicaraguan ecocanal remains a topic of interest. (Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/B battery)

In addition to its beach and resort communities, the Pacific lowlands contains most of Nicaragua’s Spanish colonial architecture and artifacts. Cities such as León and Granada abound in colonial architecture; founded in 1524, Granada is the oldest colonial city in the Americas(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25T/S battery).[106]

[edit]North-central highlands

The central highlands are a significantly less populated and economically developed area in the north, between Lake Nicaragua and the Caribbean. Forming the country’s tierra templada, or “temperate land”, at elevations between 2,000 and 5,000 feet (610 and 1,524 m), the highlands enjoy mild temperatures with daily highs of(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25T/P battery)

75 to 80 °F (23.9 to 26.7 °C). This region has a longer, wetter rainy season than the Pacific lowlands, making erosion a problem on its steep slopes. Rugged terrain, poor soils, and low population density characterize the area as a whole, but the northwestern valleys are fertile and well settled. (Sony VAIO VGN-SR25S/B battery)

The area has a cooler climate than the Pacific lowlands. About a quarter of the country’s agriculture takes place in this region, with coffee grown on the higher slopes. Oaks, pines, moss, ferns and orchids are abundant in the cloud forests of the region.

Bird life in the forests of the central region includes Resplendent Quetzal, goldfinches, hummingbirds, jays and toucanets(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25M/B battery).

Toucans such as this Keel-billed Toucan are common in Nicaragua’s rainforests

[edit]Caribbean lowlands

This large rainforest region is irrigated by several large rivers and is sparsely populated. The area has 57% of the territory of the nation and most of its mineral resources. It has been heavily exploited, but much natural diversity remains. The Rio Coco is the largest river in Central America; it forms the border with Honduras(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25G/S battery). The Caribbean coastline is much more sinuous than its generally straight Pacific counterpart; lagoons and deltas make it very irregular.

Nicaragua’s Bosawás Biosphere Reserve is in the Atlantic lowlands; it protects 1,800,000 acres (728,434 ha) of La Mosquitia forest – almost seven percent of the country’s area – making it the largest rainforest north of the Amazon in Brazil(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25G/P battery).[107]

Nicaragua’s tropical east coast is very different from the rest of the country. The climate is predominantly tropical, with high temperature and high humidity. Around the area’s principal city of Bluefields, English is widely spoken along with the official Spanish. The population more closely resembles that found in many typical Caribbean ports than the rest of Nicaragua(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25G/B battery).

A great variety of birds can be observed including eagles, turkeys, toucans, parakeets and macaws. Animal life in the area includes different species of monkeys, anteaters, white-tailed deer and tapirs.

[edit]Economy

Main article: Economy of Nicaragua

[edit]Exports

The seaport in Corinto, Nicaragua is the country’s only deep-water port capable of handling container ships and tankers(Sony VAIO VGN-SR240N/B battery)

Trains were once the main mode of transport for goods. tracks were sold for scrap. The remaining train engines in Nicaragua now serve as tourist attractions, as seen here in Granada, Nicaragua.

Nicaragua is primarily an agricultural country; agriculture constitutes 60% of its total exports which annually yield approximately US $2.0 billion(Sony VAIO VGN-SR240J/B battery).[108] In addition, Nicaragua’s Flor de Caña rum is renowned as among the best in Latin America, and its tobacco and beef are also well regarded. Nicaragua’s agrarian economy has historically been based on the export of cash crops such as coffee, beef and tobacco. Light industry (maquila), tourism, banking, mining, fisheries, and general commerce are expanding(Sony VAIO VGN-SR23H/B battery). Nicaragua also depends heavily on remittances from Nicaraguans living abroad, which totaled $655.5 million in 2006.

Nicaragua has always been a predominantly agricultural country. On the Pacific side, coffee and cotton are by far the most important commercial crops. In 1992, more land was devoted to coffee than to any other crop, and it is the nation’s leading export in terms of value(Sony VAIO VGN-SR220J/H battery). Nearly two-thirds of the coffee crop comes from the northern part of the central highlands, in the area north and east of the town of Estelí.[100]

In the early 1980s, cotton became Nicaragua’s second-largest export earner. Production is centered on large farms along the central Pacific coast. Unfortunately, the growth of the cotton industry has created serious problems. Soil erosion and pollution from the heavy use of pesticides have become serious concerns in the cotton district(Sony VAIO VGN-SR220J/B battery). Yields and exports have both been declining since 1985.[100]

Plantation crops are significant in the Caribbean lowlands. After disease wiped out most of the region’s banana plants in the years before 1945, attempts were made to diversify crops. Today most of Nicaragua’s bananas are grown in the northwestern part of the country near the port of Corinto(Sony VAIO VGN-SR21M/S battery); sugarcane is also grown in the same district.[100] Subsistence farms, where food is grown mainly for the consumption of the farm family instead of for sale, are found throughout Nicaragua. Favorite food crops grown on such farms include rice, beans, maize, citrus fruits, and cassava. Cassava, a root crop somewhat similar to the potato(Sony VAIO VGN-SR19XN battery), is an important food in tropical regions. The plant’s roots can be eaten boiled and sliced, or ground into flour. Cassava is also the main ingredient in tapioca pudding.[100]

The Pacific lowlands and the middle and southern parts of the Central highlands are the principal cattle-grazing areas. An especially large number of cattle are found to the east of Lake Nicaragua(Sony VAIO VGN-SR19VN battery).

Nicaragua’s economy has also grown due to the emigration of retirees from parts of North America and Europe. The influx of incoming residents has generated the construction of residencies and commercial services throughout the country. Illustrated above are the residencies of Viejo Santo Domingo, which are some of the country’s high-end residencies(Sony VAIO VGN-SR190F battery).

Beginning in the 1960s, shrimp became big business on both the Pacific and Caribbean coasts. The main shrimping centers on the Pacific coast are Corinto and San Juan del Sur. Fishing boats on the Caribbean side bring shrimp as well as lobsters into processing plants at Puerto Cabezas, Bluefields, and Laguna de Perlas. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17L battery)

The lumber industry, concentrated mainly in the eastern third of the country, has been lethargic since 1980, with its activities limited by several problems. First, the best trees in the most accessible places have already been cut down. In addition, pure groves of trees are uncommon in tropical forests. Hundreds of species per acre are generally the rule, complicating the task of harvesting(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17G battery). Moreover, the most valuable dense hardwoods will not float. As a result, these trees must be trucked out of the forest rather than floated downriver to a sawmill. Finally, more restrictions are being placed on lumbering due to increased environmental concerns about destruction of the rain forests. But lumbering continues despite these obstacles(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17 battery); indeed, a single hardwood tree may be worth thousands of dollars.[100]

Political turmoil has had a severe impact on the mining industry. Exports of gold are down, and little effort has been made to develop the large copper deposits of the northeast. Fighting during the revolution destroyed nearly one-third of Nicaragua’s industry. As it rebuilds, the government is trying to change the industrial mix of the country and achieve decentralization(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ160E/B battery). Before the revolution, more than 60 percent of the nation’s industrial production, by value, was concentrated in Managua. The industrial-decentralization policy may help to slow the growth of the largest cities, while assisting in the redistribution of income and development of economies in impoverished areas(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ160E battery). Major industries include food processing, cement production, metal fabrication, and oil refining. The Centroamérica power plant on the Tuma River in the Central highlands has been expanded, and other hydroelectric projects have been undertaken to help provide electricity to the nation’s newer industries(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15S battery).[100]

The economic core of Nicaragua is in the Pacific zone, and the railway and highway network reflects that concentration of activity. The government-owned rail system—an inefficient money loser—is gradually being replaced by truck transport. Transportation throughout the rest of the nation is often inadequate. For example(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15M battery), one cannot travel all the way by highway from Managua to the Caribbean coast. The road ends at the town of Rama. Travelers have to transfer and make the rest of the trip by riverboat down the Río Escondido—a five-hour journey.[100]

Corinto is the only modern deepwater port in Nicaragua. It handles both agricultural exports and general-cargo imports(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15L battery). Petroleum is unloaded at Puerto Sandino, from which it travels by pipeline to a refinery in Managua. Trade with other nations in Central America has increased in recent years. Nicaragua has long been considered as a possible site for a new sea-level canal that could supplement the Panama Canal. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15 battery)

[edit]Components of the economy

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2008 was estimated at $17.37 billion USD.[109] The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 56.9%, followed by the industrial sector at 26.1% (2006 est.). Agriculture represents 17% of GDP, the highest percentage in Central America [110] (2008 est.) (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ145E battery). Remittances account for over 15% of the Nicaraguan GDP. Close to one billion dollars are sent to the country by Nicaraguans living abroad.[111] Nicaraguan labor force is estimated at 2.322 million of which 29% is occupied in agriculture, 19% in the industrial sector and 52% in the service sector (est. 2008) (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140N battery).

[edit]Agriculture

A Nicaraguan farmer

After 1950 the scope of capital-intensive modern agriculture increased greatly. This growth was concentrated in export crops, while crops destined for domestic use continued to be produced by traditional labor-intensive methods. The shift to industrialized agriculture also significantly reduced the proportion of the population directly dependent on agriculture(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140N/B battery).

Commercial agriculture thrives in the Pacific lowlands, where cotton and sugarcane are the staple crops. Although coffee is grown in the Pacific zone at elevations over 1,000 feet (300 meters), the most important coffee zone is the northwestern part of the Central highlands, from Matagalpa to Jinotega. Cattle for the export of beef are raised in the southeastern part of the highlands(SONY VGP-BPS10/S battery). The overall expansion of export production by large landholders pushed the smallholders who produced the country’s maize, beans, and other dietary staples onto marginal lands, with the result that food production could not keep up with population increase.

In the 1990s the government initiated efforts to diversify agriculture. Some of the new export-oriented crops were peanuts, sesame, melons, and onions(SONY VGP-BPS10/B battery).[100]

Nicaragua’s agricultural sector has benefited because of the country’s strong ties to Venezuela. It is estimated that Venezuela will import approximately $200 million in agricultural goods.[112]

[edit]Fishing and forestry

Shrimp is one of the main marine export products of the Nicaraguan economy.

Forestry and fishing are the bases of the eastern seaboard’s commercial economy. In national terms, neither sector was important until the take-off of the fishing industry in the late 20th century(SONY VGP-BPS10A/B battery). Mahogany was harvested commercially on the Atlantic coast beginning early in the 19th century. In the 20th century pine stands began to be exploited. In neither case, though, was the resource managed so as to ensure a sustained yield.

Nicaragua’s fishing industry operates off both coasts and in freshwater Lake Nicaragua. The lake also has an aquaculture industry(SONY VGP-BPS10A battery). The most valuable catches are shrimp and spiny lobster. The government expanded the size of the fishing fleet in the 1980s, which permitted a rapid expansion of shrimp and lobster exports in the 1990s. A turtle fishery thrived on the Caribbean coast before it collapsed from overexploitation(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/T battery).[100]

[edit]Mining and the production of energy

Mining is not a major industry in Nicaragua,[113] contributing less than 1% of gross domestic product (GDP). Still, gold and silver mines in the north-central and northeastern parts of the country are important elements of regional economies and constitute sources of revenue. Important domestic sources of electrical energy are hydropower and geothermal power(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/T battery), the latter from the volcano Momotombo, near Managua. But most commercial electricity is generated by imported petroleum.

[edit]Manufacturing

Although the manufacturing sector of the economy contributes somewhat more to GDP than agriculture, it employs far fewer people. It was traditionally concerned largely with the processing of agricultural products, and it supplied the domestic market with foods, beverages, edible oils, cigarettes, and textile goods(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/S battery). Also manufactured were light metal goods, construction materials, wood and paper products, and chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides.

The manufacturing sector was expanded beyond these areas in the 1990s with the introduction of maquila industries, in which imported parts are assembled for reexport. The principal products were garments, footwear(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/S battery), aluminum frames, and jewelry. Growth in the maquila sector slowed in the first decade of the 21st century with rising competition from Asian markets, particularly China.[100]

[edit]Economic development in the 21st century

Nicaragua has widespread underemployment and the second lowest per capita income in the Americas. The US-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) has been in effect since April 2006 and has expanded export opportunities for many agricultural and manufactured goods(Sony VAIO VGN-NW320F/TC battery). Textiles and apparel account for nearly 60% of Nicaragua’s exports, but recent increases in the minimum wage have a strong possibility of eroding Nicaragua’s comparative advantage in this industry. Nicaragua’s minimum wage is among the lowest in the Americas and in the World. (Sony VAIO VGN-NW320F/B battery)

Nicaragua relies on international economic assistance to meet internal and external debt financing obligations. In early 2004, Nicaragua secured some $4.5 billion in foreign debt reduction under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative. In October 2007, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) approved a new Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility program. Despite the support(Sony VAIO VGN-NW31JF battery), severe budget shortfalls resulting from the suspension of large amounts of direct budget support from foreign donors concerned with recent political developments has caused a slowdown in PRGF disbursements.

Similarly, private sector concerns surrounding Daniel Ortega’s handling of economic issues have dampened investment. Economic growth has slowed in 2009(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21ZF battery), due to decreased export demand from the US and Central American markets from the overall recession, lower commodity prices for key agricultural exports, and low remittance growth. Remittances are equivalent to roughly 15% of the country’s Gross Domestic Product. (Sony VAIO VGN-NW31EF/W battery)

[edit]Poverty

Nicaragua, the poorest country in Central America and the second poorest in the Hemisphere, has widespread underemployment and poverty. The US-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) has been in effect since April 2006 and has expanded export opportunities for many agricultural and manufactured goods(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF/W battery). Textiles and apparel account for nearly 60% of Nicaragua’s exports, but increases in the minimum wage during the Ortega administration will likely erode its comparative advantage in this industry. Ortega’s promotion of mixed business initiatives, owned by the Nicaraguan and Venezuelan state oil firms, together with the weak rule of law(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF battery), could undermine the investment climate for domestic and international private firms in the near-term. Nicaragua relies on international economic assistance to meet internal- and external-debt financing obligations. Foreign donors have curtailed this funding, however, in response to November 2008 electoral fraud(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21JF battery). In early 2004, Nicaragua secured some $4.5 billion in foreign debt reduction under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. Managua still struggles with a high public debt burden, however, it succeeded in reducing that burden substantially in 2011. The economy grew at a rate of about 4% in 2011(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21EF/S battery).[118]

Nicaragua is among the poorest countries in the Americas.[119][120][121] Nicaragua’s nominal GDP stands at 6.554 for 2009 and increasing to 8.532 by 2014.[citation needed] Nicaragua’s GDP (PPP) 16.709 billion and the GDP per capita is $1,028 for Nicaragua. (Sony VAIO VGN-NW battery)

According to the PNUD, 48% of the population in Nicaragua live below the poverty line,[122] 79.9% of the population live with less than $2 per day,[123] unemployment is 3.9%, and another 46.5% are underemployed (2008 est.). As in many other developing countries, a large segment of the economically poor in Nicaragua are women(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/W Battery). In addition, a relatively high proportion of Nicaragua’s homes have a woman as head of household: 39% of urban homes and 28% of rural homes. According to UN figures, 80% of the indigenous people (who make up 5% of the population) live on less than $1 per day.[124] According to the FAO, 27% of all Nicaraguans are suffering from undernourishment; the highest percentage in Central America(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/N Battery).

[edit]Infrastructure

During the war between the US-backed Contras and the government of the Sandinistas in the 1980s, much of the country’s infrastructure was damaged or destroyed.[125] Inflation averaged 30% throughout the 1980s. After the United States imposed a trade embargo in 1985, which lasted 5 years, Nicaragua’s inflation rate rose dramatically(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/L Battery). The 1985 annual rate of 220% tripled the following year and rose to more than 13,000% in 1988, the highest rate for any country in the Western Hemisphere in that year.

The country is still a recovering economy and it continues to implement further reforms to improve profits for foreign businesses, on which aid from the IMF is conditional. In 2005 finance ministers of the leading eight industrialized nations (G8) agreed to forgive some of Nicaragua’s foreign debt(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/R Battery), as part of the HIPC program. According to the World Bank, Nicaragua’s GDP was around $4.9 billion US dollars. In March 2007, Poland and Nicaragua signed an agreement to write off 30.6 million dollars which was borrowed by the Nicaraguan government in the 1980s.[126] Since the end of the war almost two decades ago(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/P Battery), more than 350 state enterprises have been privatized. Inflation reduced from 33,500% in 1988 to 9.45% in 2006, and the foreign debt was cut in half.[127]

According to the World Bank, Nicaragua ranked as the 62nd best economy for starting a business: making it the second best in Central America, after Panama.[128] Nicaragua’s economy is “62.7% free” with high levels of fiscal, government, labor, investment, financial, and trade freedom(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/B Battery).[129] It ranks as the 61st freest economy, and 14th (of 29) in the Americas.

[edit]Currency

Main article: Nicaraguan córdoba

Nicaragua uses polymer banknotes in its circulated currency. Illustrated here is a 50 córdoba banknote.

During the era of the Spanish colonial rule, and for more than 50 years afterward, Nicaragua used Spanish coins that were struck for use in the “New World”. The first unique coins for Nicaragua were issued in 1878 in the peso denomination(Sony Vaio VGN-CR220E/R Battery). The córdoba became Nicaragua’s currency in 1912 and was initially equal in value to the U.S. dollar. The Córdoba was named after Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, the national founder. The front of each of Nicaragua’s circulating coins features the national coat of arms. The five volcanoes represent the five Central American countries at the time of Nicaragua’s independence; the rainbow at the top symbolizes peace(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21Z/R Battery); and the cap in the center is a symbol of freedom. The design is contained within a triangle to indicate equality. The back of each coin features the denomination, with the inscription En Dios Confiamos (In God We Trust).

Nicaragua is the first country in the Americas to successfully overhaul production of its paper currency in favor of polymer banknotes(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21Z/N Battery). Polymer banknotes were issued in 2009 to reduce the need to reprint banknotes, combat counterfeiting and introduce a more hygienic currency. The previously issued banknotes are still accepted as legal tender. However, unlike previous banknote series, the current series does not have any illustration of politicians. Rather, the current currency series celebrates the country’s landmarks, history and culture(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/W Battery).

[edit]Conversion to the SUCRE

Main articles: Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas and SUCRE (currency)

Nicaragua is currently a member of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, which is also known as ALBA. ALBA has proposed creating a new currency, the Sucre for use among its members. In essence, this means that the Nicaraguan córdoba will be replaced with the Sucre. Members must make their local currency deposits in Caracas(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/P Battery), to enter into force on sucre. The monetary union first will be virtual, to be used only among the states for inter-regional trade. It will then be used in print form. The ALBA-Sucre union is similar to that of the Euro of the European Union.

Other nations that will follow a similar pattern include: Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Honduras, Cuba, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Dominica and Antigua and Barbuda. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/L Battery)

View of León

[edit]Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Nicaragua

By 2006, tourism in Nicaragua had become the second largest industry in the nation,[131] over the last 7 years tourism has grown about 70% nationwide with rates of 10%–16% annually.[132] Nicaragua had seen positive growth in the tourism sector over the last decade, and it became the first largest industry in 2007(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/W Battery). The increase and growth led to the income from tourism to rise more than 300% over a period of 10 years.[133] The growth in tourism has also positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry.

gazebo of Selva Negra Mountain Resort in Matagalpa.

Every year about 60,000 U.S. citizens visit Nicaragua, primarily business people, tourists, and those visiting relatives(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/P Battery).[134] Some 5,300 people from the U.S. reside in the country now. The majority of tourists who visit Nicaragua are from the U.S., Central or South America, and Europe. According to the Ministry of Tourism of Nicaragua (INTUR),[135] the colonial city of Granada is the preferred spot for tourists. Also, the cities of León, Masaya(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/L Battery), Rivas and the likes of San Juan del Sur, San Juan River, Ometepe, Mombacho Volcano, the Corn Islands, and others are main tourist attractions. In addition, ecotourism and surfing attract many tourists to Nicaragua.

According to TV Noticias (news program) on Canal 2, a Nicaragua television station, the main attractions in Nicaragua for tourists are the beaches, scenic routes, the architecture of cities such as León and Granada(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21/B Battery), and most recently ecotourism and agritourism, particularly in Northern Nicaragua.[132] As a result of increased tourism, Nicaragua has seen its foreign direct investment increase by 79.1% from 2007 to 2009.[136]

[edit]Demographics

Main articles: Nicaraguans and Demographics of Nicaragua

[edit]Population

According to the CIA World Factbook, Nicaragua has a population of 5,891,199; comprising mainly 69% mestizo, 17% white, 5% Amerindian, 9.0% black and other races and this fluctuates with changes in migration patterns. The population is 84% urban(Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/W Battery).

Nicaraguan women at a concert in Managua.

According to the CIA World Factbook, Nicaragua’s life expectancy was 71.90 years in 2011,[137] a figure roughly equivalent to that of Vietnam and Palau. The infant mortality rate stood at 25.5, roughly equivalent to that of the Marshall Islands and Paraguay(Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/R Battery).[138]

Nicaragua appears ranked 91st in the international mortality rate, which places it between the world average and Panama.[139]

The most populous city in Nicaragua is the capital, Managua, with a population of 1.8 million (2005) and an estimated 2.2 by 2010 and more than 2.5 mill for the metro area. As of 2005, over 7.0 million inhabitants live in the Pacific, Central and North regions(Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/P Battery), 5.5 in the Pacific region alone, while inhabitants in the Caribbean region reached an estimated 700,000.[140]

There is a growing expatriate community[141] the majority of whom move for business, investment or retirement from all across the world, such as from the US, Canada, Taiwan, and various European countries; the majority have settled in Managua, Granada and San Juan del Sur(Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/L Battery).

Many Nicaraguans live abroad, particularly in the United States, Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Canada.[142]

Nicaragua has a population growth rate of 1.8% as of 2008.[citation needed] This is the result of one of the highest birth rates in the Western Hemisphere: 24.9 per 1,000 according to the United Nations for the period 2005–2010.[citation needed] The death rate is 4.1 per 1,000 during the same period according to the United Nations. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR190 Battery)

[edit]Ethnic groups

An African-Nicaraguan.

The majority of the Nicaraguan population, (86% or approximately 5.06 million people), is either Mestizo or White. 69% are Mestizos (mixed Amerindian and European) and 17% of European origin, the majority of Spanish, German, Italian, English or French ancestry. Mestizos and Whites mainly reside in the western region of the country(Sony Vaio VGN-CR150E/B Battery).

About 9% of Nicaragua’s population are black, and mainly reside on the country’s sparsely populated Caribbean or Atlantic coast. The black population is mostly composed of black English-speaking Creoles who are the descendents of escaped or shipwrecked slaves; many carry the name of Scottish settlers who brought slaves with them, such as Campbell, Gordon, Downs and Hodgeson(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/W Battery). Although many Creoles supported Somoza because of his close association with the US, they rallied to the Sandinista cause in July 1979 only to reject the revolution soon afterwards in response to a new phase of ‘westernization’ and imposition of central rule from Managua.[143] Nicaragua has the largest African diaspora population in Central America(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/R Battery). There is also a smaller number of Garifuna, a people of mixed West African, Carib and Arawak descent. In the mid-1980s, the government divided the department of Zelaya – consisting of the eastern half of the country – into two autonomous regions and granted the black and indigenous people of this region limited self-rule within the Republic(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/P Battery).

The remaining 5% of Nicaraguans are Amerindians, the unmixed descendants of the country’s indigenous inhabitants. Nicaragua’s pre-Columbian population consisted of many indigenous groups. In the western region the Nicarao people, after whom the country is named, were present along with other groups related by culture and language to the Mayans(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/L Battery). The Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by indigenous peoples who were mostly chibcha related groups that had migrated from South America, primarily present day Colombia and Venezuela. These groups include the Miskitos, Ramas and Sumos. In the 19th century, there was a substantial indigenous minority, but this group was also largely assimilated culturally into the mestizo majority(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/R Battery).

[edit]Immigration

Palestinian Nicaraguans celebrating the 10th anniversary of the Nicaraguan revolution in Managua waving Palestinian and Sandinista flags

Relative to its overall population, Nicaragua has never experienced any large-scale immigrant waves. The total number of immigrants to Nicaragua, both originating from other Latin American countries and all other countries, never surpassed 1% of its total population prior to 1995. The 2005 census showed the foreign-born population at 1.2%, having risen a mere .06% in 10 years(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/P Battery).[140]

In the 19th century Nicaragua experienced modest waves of immigration from Europe. In particular, families from Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Belgium immigrated to Nicaragua, particularly the departments in the Central and Pacific region. As a result, the Northern cities of Estelí, Jinotega and Matagalpa have significant communities of fourth generation Germans(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/W Battery). They established many agricultural businesses such as coffee and sugar cane plantations, newspapers, hotels and banks.

Also present is a small Middle Eastern-Nicaraguan community of Syrians, Armenians, Palestinian Nicaraguans, Jewish Nicaraguans, and Lebanese people in Nicaragua with a total population of about 30,000. There is also an East Asian community mostly consisting of Chinese, Taiwanese, and Japanese(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/L Battery). The Chinese Nicaraguan population is estimated at around 12,000.[144] The Chinese arrived in the late 19th century but were unsubstantiated until the 1920s.

[edit]Diaspora

Main article: Nicaraguan Diaspora

The Civil War forced many Nicaraguans to start lives outside of their country. Although many Nicaraguans returned after the end of the war, many people emigrated during the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century due to the lack of employment opportunities and poverty(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/B Battery). The majority of the Nicaraguan Diaspora migrated to Costa Rica and the United States, and today one in six Nicaraguans live in these two countries.[145]

The diaspora has also seen Nicaraguans settling around in smaller communities in other parts of the world, particularly Western Europe. Small communities of Nicarguans are found in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Communities also exist in Australia and New Zealand(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G Battery). Canada, Brazil and Argentina in the Americas also host small groups of these communities. In Asia, Japan also hosts a small Nicaraguan community.

Due to extreme poverty in Nicaragua, many Nicaraguans are now living and working in neighboring El Salvador a country that has the US dollar as currency.[146] [147]

[edit]Maternal and child health care

In June 2011, the United Nations Population Fund released a report on The State of the World’s Midwifery(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/W Battery). It contained new data on the midwifery workforce and policies relating to newborn and maternal mortality for 58 countries. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Nicaragua is 100. This is compared with 102.6 in 2008 and 100.8 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 27 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5’s mortality is 46(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/R Battery). The aim of this report is to highlight ways in which the Millennium Development Goals can be achieved, particularly Goal 4 – Reduce child mortality and Goal 5 – improve maternal death. In Nicaragua the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 7 and 1 in 300 shows us the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/P Battery).[148]

[edit]Culture

Main article: Culture of Nicaragua

Nicaraguan women wearing the Mestizaje costume, which is a traditional costume worn to dance the Mestizaje dance. The costume demonstrates the Spanish influence on Nicaraguan clothing.[149]

Nicaraguan culture has strong folklore, music and religious traditions, deeply influenced by European culture but enriched with Amerindian sounds and flavors. Nicaraguan culture can further be defined in several distinct strands(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/L Battery). The Pacific coast has strong folklore, music and religious traditions, deeply influenced by Europeans. It was colonized by Spain and has a similar culture to other Spanish-speaking Latin American countries. The indigenous groups that historically inhabited the Pacific coast have largely been assimilated into the mestizo culture(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/B Battery).

The Caribbean coast of the country, on the other hand, was once a British protectorate. English is still predominant in this region and spoken domestically along with Spanish and indigenous languages. Its culture is similar to that of Caribbean nations that were or are British possessions, such as Jamaica, Belize, the Cayman Islands, etc. Unlike on the west coast(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11Z/R Battery), the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean coast have maintained distinct identities, and some still speak their native languages as first languages.

[edit]Music

Main article: Music of Nicaragua

Nicaraguan music is a mixture of indigenous and European, especially Spanish, influences. Musical instruments include the marimba and others common across Central America. The marimba of Nicaragua is uniquely played by a sitting performer holding the instrument on his knees. He is usually accompanied by a bass fiddle(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/W Battery), guitar and guitarrilla (a small guitar like a mandolin). This music is played at social functions as a sort of background music. The marimba is made with hardwood plates placed over bamboo or metal tubes of varying lengths. It is played with two or four hammers. The Caribbean coast of Nicaragua is known for a lively, sensual form of dance music called Palo de Mayo which is popular throughout the country(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Battery). It is especially loud and celebrated during the Palo de Mayo festival in May. The Garifuna community (Afro-Indian) is known for its popular music called Punta.

Nicaragua enjoys a variety of international influence in the music arena. Bachata, Merengue, Salsa and Cumbia have gained prominence in cultural centers such as Managua, Leon and Granada(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/L Battery). Cumbia dancing has grown popular with the introduction of Nicaraguan artists, including Gustavo Leyton, on Ometepe Island and in Managua. Salsa dancing has become extremely popular in Managua’s nightclubs. With various influences, the form of salsa dancing varies in Nicaragua. New York style and Cuban Salsa (Salsa Casino) elements have gained popularity across the country(Sony VGN-CR42E Battery).

Bachata dancing has also gained popularity in Nicaragua. Combinations of styles from the Dominican Republic and the United States can be found throughout the country. The nature of the dance in Nicaragua varies depending on the region. Rural areas tend to have a stronger focus on movement of the hips and turns. Urbanized cities(Sony VGN-CR42S Battery), on the other hand, focus primarily on more sophisticated footwork in addition to movement and turns. A considerable amount of Bachata dancing influence comes from Nicaraguans living abroad, in cities that include Miami, Los Angeles and, to a much lesser extent, New York City. Tango has also surfaced recently in cultural cities and ballroom dance occasions(Sony VGN-CR42Z Battery).

[edit]Literature

Main article: Literature of Nicaragua

Rubén Darío, the founder of the modernismo literary movement in Latin America.

The literature of Nicaragua can be traced to pre-Columbian times; the myths and oral literature formed the cosmogonic view of the world of the indigenous people. Some of these stories are still known in Nicaragua. Like many Latin American countries, the Spanish conquerors have had the most effect on both the culture and the literature(Sony VGN-CR42ZR Battery). Nicaraguan literature has historically been an important source of poetry in the Spanish-speaking world, with internationally renowned contributors such as Rubén Darío, who is regarded as the most important literary figure in Nicaragua. He is called the “Father of Modernism” for leading the modernismo literary movement at the end of the 19th century(Sony VGN-CR41SR Battery).[150] Other literary figures include Carlos Martinez Rivas, Pablo Antonio Cuadra, Alberto Cuadra Mejia, Manolo Cuadra, Pablo Alberto Cuadra Arguello, Orlando Cuadra Downing, Alfredo Alegría Rosales, Sergio Ramirez Mercado, Ernesto Cardenal, Gioconda Belli, Claribel Alegría and José Coronel Urtecho, among others(Sony VGN-CR41E Battery).

The satirical drama El Güegüense was the first literary work of post-Columbian Nicaragua. It is regarded as one of Latin America’s most distinctive colonial-era expressions and as Nicaragua’s signature folkloric masterpiece, combining music, dance and theater.[150] The theatrical play was written by an anonymous author in the 16th century(Sony VGN-CR41S Battery), making it one of the oldest indigenous theatrical/dance works of the Western Hemisphere.[151] After centuries of popular performance, the play was first published in a book in 1942.[152]

[edit]Language

Main articles: Languages of Nicaragua, Central American Spanish, Nicaraguan Spanish, and Voseo

A sign in Bluefields in English (top), Spanish (middle) and Miskito (bottom)

Nicaraguan Spanish has many indigenous influences and several distinguishing characteristics. Until the 19th century(Sony VGN-CR41Z Battery), a hybrid form of Nahuat-Spanish was the common language of Nicaragua. Today Nahuat, Mangue, and Mayan words and syntax can be found in everyday speech.[153] The Nicaraguan accent dates back to the 16th century in Andalusia, and the relative isolation of Nicaragua meant that the accent did not change in the same ways that the Andalusian accent has(Sony VGN-CR31Z Battery). For example, some Nicaraguans have a tendency to replace the “s” sound with an “h”" sound when speaking.[153] Other Nicaraguans pronounce the word vos with a strong s sound at the end. In the central part of the country, regions such as Boaco pronounce vos without the s sound at the end. The result is vo, similar to vous in French and voi in Italian(Sony VGN-CR31E Battery).

In this map, the use of the voseo form is illustrated, with countries such as Nicaragua, where it is predominant, represented in dark blue. Voseo is also predominant in Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, where Rioplatense Spanish is spoken.

Central American Spanish is spoken by about 90% of Nicaragua’s population. In Nicaragua, the voseo form of address is dominant in both speech and publications(Sony VGN-CR31S Battery). The same is true for the Río de la Plata region of South America. Nicaraguan Spanish can be understood everywhere in the Hispanosphere.

Nicaraguans, unlike most Spanish-speaking groups, cannot be categorized uniformly in terms of accent and word usage. Although Spanish is spoken throughout the country, the country has great variety(Sony VGN-CR31SR Battery): vocabulary, accents and colloquial language can vary between towns and departments.[154]

In the Caribbean coast, many Afro-Nicaraguans and creoles speak English and creole English as their first language, but as a second language, they speak a fluent Spanish. The language in the North and South Atlantic Regions are influenced by English, Dutch(Sony VGN-CR21SR Battery), Portuguese, Spanish and French roots. In addition, many of the indigenous people speak their native languages, such as the Miskito, Sumo, Rama and Garifuna language.[155] In addition, many ethnic groups in Nicaragua have maintained ancestral languages, while also speaking Spanish or English; these include Chinese, Arabic, German, and Italian(Sony VGN-CR21Z Battery).

Spanish is taught as the principal language. English is taught to students during their high school years and tends to be the national second language. Other languages can also be found sporadically, particularly within expatriate communities.

Nicaragua was home to three extinct languages, one of which was never classified(Sony VGN-CR21S Battery). Nicaraguan Sign Language is also of particular interest to linguists as the world’s youngest language.[156]

[edit]Religion

Main article: Religion in Nicaragua

While Religion in Nicaragua is growing in diversity, the majority of Nicaraguans identify themselves as observers of the Roman Catholic faith. Pictured above is the Leon Cathedral, which is among one of the nation’s World Heritage Sites and an active place of religious worship in León, Nicaragua(Sony VGN-CR21E Battery).

Religion is a significant part of the culture of Nicaragua and is referred to in the constitution. Religious freedom, which has been guaranteed since 1939, and religious tolerance are promoted by both the Nicaraguan government and the constitution(Sony VGN-CR11E Battery).

Nicaragua has no official religion. Catholic Bishops are expected to lend their authority to important state occasions, and their pronouncements on national issues are closely followed. They can also be called upon to mediate between contending parties at moments of political crisis(Sony VGN-CR11M Battery).[157]

The largest denomination, and traditionally the religion of the majority, is Roman Catholic. The numbers of practicing Roman Catholics have been declining, while members of evangelical Protestant groups and Mormons have been rapidly growing in numbers since the 1990s. There are also strong Anglican and Moravian communities on the Caribbean coast(Sony VGN-CR11S Battery).

Roman Catholicism came to Nicaragua in the 16th century with the Spanish conquest and remained, until 1939, the established faith. Protestantism and other Christian denominations came to Nicaragua during the 19th century, but only gained large followings in the Caribbean Coast during the 20th century(Sony VGN-CR11Z Battery).

Popular religion revolves around the saints, who are perceived as intercessors (but not mediators) between human beings and God. Most localities, from the capital of Managua to small rural communities, honor patron saints, selected from the Roman Catholic calendar, with annual fiestas. In many communities, a rich lore has grown up around the celebrations of patron saints, such as Managua’s Saint Dominic (Sony VGN-CR11SR Battery) (Santo Domingo), honored in August with two colorful, often riotous, day-long processions through the city. The high point of Nicaragua’s religious calendar for the masses is neither Christmas nor Easter, but La Purísima, a week of festivities in early December dedicated to the Immaculate Conception, during which elaborate altars to the Virgin Mary are constructed in homes and workplaces(Sony VGN-NR110E/W Battery).[157]

The country’s close political ties have also encouraged religious ties. Buddhism has increased with a steady influx of immigration.[158]

[edit]Cuisine

Main article: Cuisine of Nicaragua

The Cuisine of Nicaragua is a mixture of criollo food and dishes of pre-Columbian origin. The Spaniards found that the Creole people had incorporated local foods available in the area into their cuisine(Sony VGN-NR110E/S Battery).[159] Traditional cuisine changes from the Pacific to the Caribbean coast; while the Pacific coast’s main staple revolves around local fruits and corn, the Caribbean coast cuisine makes use of seafood and the coconut.

As in many other Latin American countries, corn is a main staple. Corn is used in many of the widely consumed dishes, such as the nacatamal, and indio viejo. Corn is also an ingredient for drinks such as pinolillo and chicha as well as sweets and desserts(Sony VGN-NR110E/T Battery). In addition to corn, rice and beans are eaten very often.

Gallo pinto, Nicaragua’s national dish, is made with white rice and red beans that are cooked separately and then fried together. The dish has several variations including the addition of coconut oil and/or grated coconut on the Caribbean coast(Sony VGN-NR110E Battery). Most Nicaraguans begin their day with Gallopinto. Gallopinto is most usually served with carne asada, a salad, fried cheese, platains or maduros.

Many of Nicaragua’s dishes include indigenous fruits and vegetables such as jocote, mango, papaya, tamarindo, pipian, banana, avocado, yuca, and herbs such as cilantro, oregano and achiote(Sony VGN-NR11S Battery).[159]

Nicaraguans also have been known to eat guinea pigs, tapirs, iguanas, turtle eggs, armadillos and boas but efforts are currently underway to curb this tendency.[citation needed]

[edit]Sports

Batter of the Fieras del San Fernando, a Nicaraguan professional baseball team

Baseball is the most popular sport played in Nicaragua. Although some professional Nicaraguan baseball teams have folded in the recent past(Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery), Nicaragua enjoys a strong tradition of American-style Baseball. Baseball was introduced to Nicaragua at different years during the 19th century. In the Caribbean coast locals from Bluefields were taught how to play baseball in 1888 by Albert Addlesberg, a retailer from the United States. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery) [160] Baseball did not catch on in the Pacific coast until 1891 when a group of mostly students originating from universities of the United States formed “La Sociedad de Recreo” (Society of Recreation) where they played various sports, baseball being the most popular among them.[160] There are five teams that compete amongst themselves(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery): Indios del Boer (Managua), Chinandega, Tiburones (Sharks) of Granada, León and Masaya. Players from these teams comprise the national team when Nicaragua competes internationally. The country has had its share of MLB players (including current Boston Red Sox pitcher Vicente Padilla and Boston Red Sox pitcher Devern Hansack) (Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery), but the most notable is Dennis Martínez, who was the first baseball player from Nicaragua to play in Major League Baseball.[161] He became the first Latin-born pitcher to throw a perfect game, and the 13th in major league history, when he played with the Montreal Expos against the Dodgers at Dodger Stadium in 1991(Sony VAIO VGN-FW465J battery).[162]

Boxing is the second most popular sport in Nicaragua.[163] The country has had world champions such as Alexis Argüello and Ricardo Mayorga among others. Recently, football has gained popularity, especially with the younger population. The Dennis Martínez National Stadium has served as a venue for both baseball and football but the first ever national football stadium in Managua is currently under construction(Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H battery).[164]

[edit]Education

Main article: Education in Nicaragua

See also: Universities in Nicaragua and List of Schools in Nicaragua

Literacy Campaign Propaganda Poster

Nicaragua’s first public primary school opened in 1837. By the late 1860s public grade schools existed in most of the larger cities. In 1877, Nicaraguan authorities accepted the principle that such schools should be nationally funded, and that attendance should be free and compulsory(Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E battery). In 1881 education was formally removed from religious control and turned over to government, but church-run schools continued to operate alongside the public system. Subsequently shortages of facilities and teachers, especially in rural areas, hampered educational development(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E battery). The Sandinista government sharply increased spending on education and reduced illiteracy significantly, but shortages of facilities and personnel remained a problem. The Sandinistas also added a leftist ideological content to the curriculum, which was removed after 1990.[100]

Higher education dates from 1818 when the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua (UNAN) was founded in León(Sony VAIO VGN-FW17W battery). A major reform, begun in 1980, reorganized the country’s postsecondary system into two universities: the UNAN, with campuses in León and Managua, and the Central American University in Managua. It also restructured the curriculum, giving more emphasis to science and technology, and less to law and commerce(Sony VAIO VGN-FW32J battery). Nicaragua also has several more specialized institutions, with a focus on education that will promote economic development.[100]

Education is paid via taxes for all Nicaraguans.[165] Elementary education is free and compulsory, but many children in rural areas are unable to attend due to lack of schools and other reasons. Communities on the Caribbean coast have access to education in their native languages(Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery).

The majority of higher education institutions are in Managua, higher education has financial, organic and administrative autonomy, according to the law. Also, freedom of subjects is recognized.[166] Nicaragua’s higher education system consists of 48 universities, and 113 colleges and technical institutes in the areas of electronics(Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery), computer systems and sciences, agroforestry, construction and trade-related services.[167] The educational system includes 1 U.S. accredited English-language university, 3 Bilingual university programs, 5 Bilingual secondary schools and dozens of English Language Institutes. In 2005, almost 400,000 (7%) of Nicaraguans held a university degree(Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M/H battery).[168] 18% of Nicaragua’s total budget is invested in primary, secondary and higher education. University level institutions account for 6% of 18%.

As of 1979, the educational system was one of the poorest in Latin America.[169] Under the Somoza dictatorships, limited spending on education and generalized poverty, which forced many adolescents into the labor market, constricted educational opportunities for Nicaraguans(Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M battery). One of the first acts of the newly elected Sandinista government in 1980 was an extensive and successful literacy campaign, using secondary school students, university students and teachers as volunteer teachers: it reduced the overall illiteracy rate from 50.3% to 12.9% within only five months.[170] This was one of a number of large scale programs which received international recognition for their gains in literacy(Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery), health care, education, childcare, unions, and land reform.[171][172] In September 1980, UNESCO awarded Nicaragua the Nadezhda Krupskaya award for the literacy campaign. This was followed by the literacy campaigns of 1982, 1986, 1987, 1995 and 2000, all of which were also awarded by UNESCO(Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery).[173]

[edit]Communications and media

For most Nicaraguans radio and TV are the main sources of news. There are more than 100 radio stations, many of them in the capital, and several TV networks. Cable TV is available in most urban areas.[174]

The print media are varied and partisan, representing pro and anti-government positions(Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery).

[edit]Print

La Prensa; El Nuevo Diario; Confidencial Varies; Hoy; Mercurio

[edit]Television

Televicentro Canal 2; Multinoticias Canal 4; Telenica Canal 8; Canal 9; Canal 10; TVRED canal 11; Nicavision Canal 12; Viva Nicaragua Canal 13; VosTV Canal 14; 100% Noticias canal 15; CDNN Canal 23; Extraplus Canal 37(Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery)

Radio

Radio Corporacion; Radio Mundial; Radio Nicaragua (state-owned); Radio Sandino; Radio Pirata; Radio Maranata:; Estacion X; Radio joya; Radio Romantica; Radio Pachanguera; Radio Buenisima; Radio Disney: Radio Oldis(Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery)

The country that is now Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age. Culturally, politically and socially, the country has one of the richest histories in the region, having been first settled by the Slavic peoples that populate the area today from the 6th through to the 9th centuries AD(Sony VGN-FW27T/H Battery). They then established the first independent Banate in the 12th century upon the arrival and convergence of people that would eventually come to call themselves Dobri Bošnjani (literally “Good Bosnians”). This evolved into the Kingdom of Bosnia in the 14th century, after which it was annexed into the Ottoman Empire(Sony VGN-FW27/W Battery), under whose rule it would remain from the mid 15th to the late 19th century. The Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until the end of World War I. Following the dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia(Sony VGN-FW27/B Battery), the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by a bloody war, lasting until late 1995.

Today, the country maintains high literacy, life expectancy and education levels and is one of the most frequently-visited countries in the region.[10] Bosnia and Herzegovina is regionally and internationally renowned for its natural beauty and cultural heritage inherited from six historical civilizations, its cuisine(Sony VGN-FW26T/B Battery), winter sports, its eclectic and unique architecture and the Sarajevo Film Festival and Sarajevo Jazz Festival, both the largest and most prominent of their kind in Southeastern Europe.[11][12]

The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, a term unique for Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third. Regardless of ethnicity(Sony VGN-FW25T/B Battery), a citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina is often identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a regional rather than ethnic distinction, and the region of Herzegovina has no precisely defined borders of its own. Moreover, the country was simply called “Bosnia” (without Herzegovina) until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the nineteenth century. (Sony VGN-FW21Z Battery)

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a parliamentary republic, which has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. However, the central government’s power is highly limited, as the country is largely decentralized and comprises two autonomous entities(Sony VGN-FW21M Battery): the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska, with a third region, the Br?ko District, governed under local government. The country is a potential candidate for membership to the European Union and has been a candidate for NATO membership since April 2010, when it received a Membership Action Plan at the summit in Tallinn(Sony VGN-FW21L Battery). Additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008.

Etymology

The first preserved mention of the name “Bosnia” is in De Administrando Imperio, a politico-geographical handbook written by the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII in the mid-10th century (between 948 and 952) describing the “small country” (Sony VGN-FW21J Battery) (?????? in Greek) of “Bosona” (??????).[14] The Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja from 1172-1196 of Bar’s Roman Catholic Christian Archbishop Grgur names Bosnia, and references an earlier source from the year of 753 – the De Regno Sclavorum (Of the Realm of Slavs). The name “Bosnia” probably comes from the name of the Bosna river around which it has been historically based(Sony VGN-FW21E Battery), which was recorded in the Roman era under the name Bossina.[15] More direct roots of the river’s names are unknown. Philologist Anton Mayer proposed a connection with the Indo-European root *bos or *bogh, meaning “running water”.[16] Certain Roman sources similarly mention Bathinus flumen as a name of the Illyrian Bosona(Sony VGN-FW19 Battery), both of which would mean “running water” as well.[16] Other theories involve the rare Latin term Bosina, meaning boundary, and possible Slavic origins.[16]

The origins of “Herzegovina” can be identified with more precision. During the Early Middle Ages the region was known as Hum, from the Zachlumoi tribe of southern Slavs which inhabited it(Sony VGN-FW17W Battery). In the 1440s, the region was ruled by the powerful nobleman Stefan Vuk?i? Kosa?a. In a document sent to Friedrich III on January 20, 1448, Stefan Vuk?i? Kosa?a called himself “Herzog of Saint Sava, Lord of Hum and Primorje, Grand Duke of Bosnia”. Herzog is the German for “duke”, and so the lands he controlled later became known as Herzegovina (Sony VGN-FW17T/H Battery) (“Dukedom”, from the addition of -ovina, “land”).[15] The region was administered by the Ottomans as the sanjak and then pashaluk of Hersek. The name Herzegovina was first included in the official name of the then Ottoman province in the mid-19th century. (Sony VGN-FW17/B Battery)

On initial proclamation of independence in 1992 the country’s official name was the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina but following the 1995 Dayton Agreement and the new constitution that accompanied it the name was officially changed to Bosnia and Herzegovina(Sony VGN-FW15T Battery).

[edit]History

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina

[edit]Early history

Main article: Early history of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia has been inhabited since at least the Neolithic age. The earliest Neolithic population became known in the Antiquity as the Illyrians. Celtic migrations in the 4th century BC were also notable. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages(Sony VGN-FW145E/W Battery). Conflict between the Illyrians and Romans started in 229 BC, but Rome did not complete its annexation of the region until AD 9.

Walls of ancient Daorson, Ošani?i near Stolac, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 3rd century BC.

It was precisely in what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina that Rome fought one of the most difficult battles in its history since the Punic Wars, as described by the Roman historian Suetonius(Sony VGN-FW139E/H Battery).[17] This was the Roman campaign against the revolt of indigenous communities from Illyricum, known in history as the Great Illyrian Revolt, and also as the Pannonian revolt, or Bellum Batonianum, the latter named after two leaders of the rebellious Illyrian communities, Bato/Baton of the Daesitiates, and Bato of the Breuci(Sony VGN-FW139E/H Battery).[18]

The Great Illyrian revolt was a rising up of Illyrians against the Romans, more specifically a revolt against Tiberius’ attempt to recruit them for his war against the Germans. The Illyrians put up a fierce resistance to the most powerful army on earth at the time[citation needed] (the Roman Army) for four years (AD 6 to AD 9), but they were finally subdued by Rome in AD 9(Sony VGN-FW11S Battery).

The last Illyrian stronghold, of which their defence won the admiration of Roman historians, is said to have been Arduba.[19] Bato of Daesitiates was captured and taken to Italy. It is alleged that when Tiberius asked Bato and the Daesitiates why they had rebelled, Baton was reputed to have answered: “You Romans are to blame for this(Sony VGN-FW11M Battery); for you send as guardians of your flocks, not dogs or shepherds, but wolves.” Bato spent the rest of his life in the Italian town of Ravenna.[20]

In the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from the entire Roman Empire settled among the Illyrians, and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region(Sony VGN-FW11 Battery).[15]

The land was originally part of Illyria up until the Roman occupation. Following the split of the Roman Empire between 337 and 395 AD, Dalmatia and Pannonia became parts of the Western Roman Empire. Some claim that the region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455 AD. It subsequently changed hands between the Alans and the Huns(Sony VGN-FS92S Battery). By the 6th century, Emperor Justinian had reconquered the area for the Byzantine Empire. The Illyrians were conquered by the Avars in the 6th century.

[edit]Medieval Bosnia

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (958–1463)

Tvrtko I of Bosnia ruled in 1353–1366 and again in 1367–1377 as ban and in 1377–1391 as the first King of Bosnia.

Expansion of the Bosnian kingdom in the XIV century

Modern knowledge of the political situation in the west Balkans during the Early Middle Ages is unclear. Upon their arrival, the Slavs brought with them a tribal social structure which probably fell apart and gave way to Feudalism only with Frankish penetration into the region in the late 9th century(Sony VGN-FS92PS Battery). The Slavic tribes also brought their mythology and pagan system of beliefs, the Rodovjerje. In particular, Perun / ?????, the highest god of the pantheon and the god of thunder and lightning is also commonly found in Bosnian toponymy, for instance in the name of Mount Perun (Perunova Gora / ???????? ????). Along with the Slavic settlers(Sony VGN-FS790 Battery), the native Illyrians were Christianized. Bosnia and Herzegovina, because of its geographic position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process, which presumably originated from the urban centers along the Dalmatian coast. Thus, Slavic Bosnian tribes remained pagans for a longer time, and finally converted to the Bogumil Christian faith(Sony VGN-FS780/W Battery).

The principalities of Serbia and Croatia split control of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 9th and 10th century, but by the High Middle Ages political circumstance led to the area being contested between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the early 12th century(Sony VGN-FS775P/H Battery), Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as an independent state under the rule of local bans.[15]

The first[verification needed] Bosnian monarch was Ban Bori?. The second[verification needed] was Ban Kulin whose rule marked the start of a controversy with the Bosnian Church, because he allowed an indigenous Bogomilism sect considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church(Sony VGN-FS750P/W Battery). In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy and embraced Catholicism in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin’s death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254(Sony VGN-FS745P/H Battery).

Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by a power struggle between the Šubi? and Kotromani? families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stephen II Kotromani? became Ban. By the time of his death in 1353, he was successful in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia(Sony VGN-FS742/W Battery). He was succeeded by his nephew Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. Tvrtko crowned himself on 26 October 1377 as Stephen Tvrtko I the King of Rascia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia, the Seaside.

Based on archaeological evidence, he was crowned in the in Mile near Visoko in the church which was built in the time of Stephen II Kotromani?’s reign(Sony VGN-FS740/W Battery), where he was also buried alongside his uncle Stjepan II.[21][22] Following his death in 1391 however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had already started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, the Kingdom of Bosnia ceased to exist in 1463(Sony VGN-FS630/W Battery).

[edit]Ottoman Era (1463–1878)

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1463–1878)

The Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 17th century.

The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in the country’s history and introduced drastic changes in the political and cultural landscape. The Ottomans allowed for the preservation of Bosnia’s identity by incorporating it as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity — a unique case among subjugated states in the Balkans(Sony VGN-FS52B Battery).[23]

Within Bosnia the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory’s socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and a complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation(Sony VGN-FS32B Battery).[15]

The three centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia’s population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire’s conquests, frequent wars with European powers, forced and economic migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became the largest of the ethno-religious groups due to the restriction imposed by the Ottoman Empire(Sony VGN-FS285M Battery),[16] and conversions-for-gain.

The Bosnian Christian communities also experienced major changes. The Bosnian Franciscans (and the Catholic population as a whole) were to a minor extent protected by official imperial decree, while the Bosnian Church disappeared altogether.[15]

As the Ottoman Empire continued their rule in the Balkans (Rumelia) (Sony VGN-FS285H Battery), Bosnia was somewhat relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province, and experienced a period of general welfare. A number of cities, such as Sarajevo and Mostar, were established and grew into regional centers of trade and urban culture and were then visited by Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi in 1648. Within these cities(Sony VGN-FS285E Battery), various Ottoman Sultans financed the construction of many works of Bosnian architecture such as the country’s first library in Sarajevo, madrassas, a school of Sufi philosophy, and a clock tower (Sahat Kula), bridges such as the Stari Most, the Tsar’s Mosque and the Gazi Husrev-beg’s Mosque(Sony VGN-FS285B Battery).

Furthermore, some Bosnians played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire’s cultural and political history during this time.[23] Bosnian recruits formed a large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of Mohács and Krbava field, while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire(Sony VGN-FS22VB Battery), including admirals such as Matrakç? Nasuh; generals such as Isa-Beg Isakovi?, Gazi Husrev-beg and Telli Hasan Pasha; administrators such as Ferhat-paša Sokolovi? and Osman Gradaš?evi?; and Grand Viziers such as the influential Mehmed Paša Sokolovi?. Some Bosnians emerged as Sufi mystics, scholars such as Ali Džabi?; and poets in the Turkish, Albanian, Arabic, and Persian languages(Sony VGN-FS22B Battery).[16]

However, by the late 17th century the Empire’s military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the conclusion of the Great Turkish War with the treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 once again made Bosnia the Empire’s westernmost province. The following century was marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia(Sony VGN-FS215Z Battery), and several outbursts of plague. The Porte’s false efforts at modernizing the Ottoman state were met with distrust growing to hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposed reforms.

This, combined with frustrations over political concessions to nascent Christian states in the east(Sony VGN-FS215S Battery), culminated in an unsuccessful revolt by Husein Gradaš?evi?, in 1831 after the Turkish Sultan Mahmud II slaughtered and abolished the Janissary.[16] Related rebellions would be extinguished by 1850, but the situation continued to deteriorate. Later agrarian unrest eventually sparked the Herzegovinian rebellion, a widespread peasant uprising(Sony VGN-FS215M Battery), in 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, a situation which eventually led to the Congress of Berlin and the Treaty of Berlin in 1878.[15]

[edit]Austro-Hungarian rule (1878–1918)

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1878–1918)

A Catholic from Central Bosnia (1901).

At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy obtained the occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and he also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar(Sony VGN-FS215E Battery), which remained under Ottoman administration. The Sanjak preserved the separation of Serbia and Montenegro, and the Austro-Hungarian garrisons there would open the way for a dash to Salonika that “would bring the western half of the Balkans under permanent Austrian influence.”[24] “High [Austro-Hungarian] military authorities desired(Sony VGN-FS215B Battery) [an...] immediate major expedition with Salonika as its objective.”[25]

On 28 September 1878 the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, threatened to resign if the army, backed by the Archduke Albert, were allowed to advance to Salonika. In the session of the Hungarian Parliament of 5 November 1878 the Opposition proposed that the Foreign Minister should be impeached for violating the constitution with his policy during the Near East Crisis and by the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina(Sony VGN-FS20 Battery). The motion lost 179 to 95. The gravest accusations were raised by the opposition rank and file against Andrassy.[25]

Although an Austro-Hungarian side quickly came to an agreement with Bosnians, tensions remained in certain parts of the country (particularly the south) and a mass emigration of predominantly Slavic dissidents occurred(Sony VGN-FS115S Battery).[15] However, a state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms which intended to make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a “model colony”.

With the aim of establishing the province as a stable political model that would help dissipate rising South Slav nationalism, Habsburg rule did much to codify laws, to introduce new political practices, and to provide for modernisation(Sony VGNE92B/B Battery). The Austro-Hungarian Empire built the three Roman Catholic churches in Sarajevo and these three churches are among only 20 Catholic churches in the state of Bosnia.

Within three years of formal occupation of Bosnia Herzegovina, Austria-Hungary, in 1881, obtained German, and more importantly, Russian, approval for the annexation of these provinces, at a time which suited Vienna. This mandate was formally ratified by the Dreikaiserbund (Three Emperor’s Treaty) on June 18 of that year(Sony VGN-E91B/B Battery).[26] Upon the accession of Czar Nicholas II, however, the Russians reneged on the agreement, asserting in 1897 the need for special scrutiny of the Bosnian Annexation issue at an unspecified future date.[27]

A plaque commemorating the location of the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria(Sony VGN-E81B/B Battery).

External matters began to affect the Bosnian Protectorate, however, and its relationship with Austria-Hungary. A bloody coup occurred in Serbia, on June 10, 1903, which brought a radical anti-Austrian government into power in Belgrade.[28] Serb attempts to foment agitation followed, advocating a unified South Slavic state(Sony VGN-E72B/S Battery), ruled from Belgrade. This gained little support amongst most of the population of Bosnia Herzegovina, and only found fertile ground with disaffected portions of the Orthodox minority. Also, the revolt in the Ottoman Empire in 1908, raised concerns that the Istanbul government might seek the outright return of Bosnia Herzegovina(Sony VGN-E72B/G Battery). These factors caused the Austrian-Hungarian government to seek a permanent resolution of the Bosnian question, sooner, rather than later.

On July 2, 1908, in response to the pressing of the Austrian-Hungarian claim, the Russian Imperial Foreign Minister Alexander Izvolsky offered to support the Bosnian Annexation in return for Vienna’s support for Russia’s bid for naval access through the Dardanelles Straits into the Mediterranean(Sony VGN-E72B/D Battery).[29] With the Russians being, at least, provisionally willing to keep their word over Bosnia Herzegovina for the first time in 11 years, Austria-Hungary waited and then published the annexation proclamation on October 6, 1908. The international furor over the annexation announcement caused Izvolsky to drop the Dardanelles Straits question(Sony VGN-E71B/S Battery), altogether, in an effort to obtain a European conference over the Bosnian Annexation.[30] This conference never materialized and without British or French support, the Russians and their client state, Serbia, were compelled to accept the Austrian-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia Herzegovina in March 1909(Sony VGN-E71B/G Battery).

Political tensions culminated on 28 June 1914, when Serb nationalist youth Gavrilo Princip, a member of the fascist Serb movement, Young Bosnia, assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo – an event that proved to be the spark that set off World War I. Although some Bosnians died serving in the armies of the various warring states(Sony VGN-E70B/S Battery), Bosnia and Herzegovina itself managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed.[23]

[edit]Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–1941)

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1918–1941)

Following the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina joined the South Slav kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over property redistribution(Sony VGN-E70B/B Battery), and formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions.[23] The dominant ideological conflict of the Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia’s major ethnic groups and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere(Sony VGN-E51B/S Battery).[15] The political reforms brought about in the newly established Yugoslavian kingdom saw few benefits for the Bosniaks; according to the 1910 final census of land ownership and population according to religious affiliation conducted in Austro-Hungary, Muslims (Bosniaks) owned 91.1%, Orthodox Serbians owned 6.0%, Croatian Catholics owned 2.6% and others(Sony VGN-E51B/D Battery), 0.3% of the property. Following the reforms Bosnian Muslims had a total of 1,175,305 hectares of agricultural and forest land taken away from them.[31]

Although the initial split of the country into 33 oblasts erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians such as Mehmed Spaho ensured that the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to the six sanjaks from Ottoman times and(Sony VGN-E50B/S Battery), thus, matched the country’s traditional boundary as a whole.[15]

The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates or banovinas that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity.[15] Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration(Sony VGN-E50B/D Battery).

The famous Cvetkovi?-Ma?ek Agreement that created the Croatian banate in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia.[16] However the rising threat of Adolf Hitler’s Nazi Germany forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement(Sony VGN-E50B/B Battery), the signing of the Tripartite Treaty, and a coup d’état, Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941.[15]

[edit]World War II (1941–45)

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1941–1945)

The railway bridge over the Neretva river, was destroyed twice during the battle of the Neretva.

Monument commemorating the Battle of Sutjeska in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Once the kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in World War II, all of Bosnia was ceded to the Independent State of Croatia(Sony VGN-CS92XS Battery). The Croat leaders embarked on a campaign of extermination of Serbs, Jews, Roma, communists and large numbers of Josip Broz Tito’s Partisans by setting up a number of death camps.

Many Serbs themselves took up arms and joined the Chetniks; a Serb nationalist movement that conducted operations coordinated with Nazi forces against the partisans(Sony VGN-CS92JS Battery). The Chetniks were also known to persecute and murder non-Serbs and communist sympathizers. They committed many war crimes against Bosnian Muslims in Eastern Bosnia. On October 12, 1941 a group of 108 notable Muslim citizens of Sarajevo signed the Resolution of Sarajevo Muslims by which they condemned the persecution of Serbs organized by Ustaše(Sony VGN-CS92DS Battery), made distinction between Muslims who participated in such persecutions and whole Muslim population, presented informations about the persecutions of Muslims by Serbs and requested security for all citizens of the country, regardless of their identity.[32]

Starting in 1941(Sony VGN-CS91S Battery), Yugoslav communists under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito organized their own multi-ethnic resistance group, the partisans, who fought against both Axis and Chetnik forces. On 29 November 1943 the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia with Tito at its helm held a founding conference in Jajce where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Habsburg borders(Sony VGN-CS91NS Battery).

Military success eventually prompted the Allies to support the Partisans, but Tito declined their offer to help and relied on his own forces instead. All the major military offensives by the antifascist movement of Yugoslavia against Nazis and their local supporters were conducted in Bosnia-Herzegovina and its peoples bore the brunt of fighting(Sony VGN-CS91HS Battery). More than 300,000 people died in Bosnia and Herzegovina in World War II.[33] At the end of the war the establishment of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, with the constitution of 1946, officially made Bosnia and Herzegovina one of six constituent republics in the new state(Sony VGN-CS90S Battery).[15]

[edit]Socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1992)

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1945–1992)

Because of its central geographic position within the Yugoslavian federation, post-war Bosnia was selected as a base for the development of the military defense industry. This contributed to a large concentration of arms and military personnel in Bosnia(Sony VGN-CS90NS Battery); a significant factor in the war that followed the break-up of Yugoslavia in the 1990s.[15] However, Bosnia’s existence within Yugoslavia, for the large part, was peaceful and prosperous. Though considered a political backwater of the federation for much of the 1950s and 1960s, in the 1970s a strong Bosnian political elite arose(Sony VGN-CS39 Battery), fueled in part by Tito’s leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement and Bosnians serving in Yugoslavia’s diplomatic corps.

While working within the communist system, politicians such as Džemal Bijedi?, Branko Mikuli? and Hamdija Pozderac reinforced and protected the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina[34] Their efforts proved key during the turbulent period following Tito’s death in 1980(Sony VGN-CS36TJ/W Battery), and are today considered some of the early steps towards Bosnian independence. However, the republic did not escape the increasingly nationalistic climate of the time. With the fall of the Soviet Union and the start of the break-up of Yugoslavia, the old communist doctrine of tolerance began to lose its potency, creating an opportunity for nationalist elements in the society to spread their influence(Sony VGN-CS36TJ/V Battery).

[edit]Bosnian War for independence (1992–1995)

Main article: Bosnian War

The parliament building in the centre of Sarajevo burns after being hit by tank fire during the siege in 1992.

Sarajevo after the siege in 1995

Detainees in the Manja?a Camp, near Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina. (Photograph provided courtesy of the ICTY)

[[File:Omarska Camp.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Detainees line up at the Omarska Camp, near Prijedor, Bosnia and Herzegovina(Sony VGN-CS36TJ/U Battery). (Photograph provided courtesy of the ICTY) DELTA 2!! [[File:Srebrenica massacre memorial gravestones 2009 1.jpg||thumb|right|220px|Gravestones at the Srebrenica Genocide memorial.]] On 18 November 1990 the first multi-party parliamentary elections were held (with a 2nd round on 25 November), which resulted in a national assembly dominated by three ethnically based parties(Sony VGN-CS36TJ/T Battery), which had formed a loose coalition to oust the communists from power.[35] Croatia and Slovenia’s subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina and its three constituent peoples in an awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation (overwhelmingly favored among Serbs) or seek independence (overwhelmingly favored among Bosniaks and Croats) (Sony VGN-CS36TJ/R Battery).

The Serb members of parliament, consisting mainly of the Serb Democratic Party members, abandoned the central parliament in Sarajevo, and formed the Assembly of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 24 October 1991, which marked the end of the tri-ethnic coalition that governed after the elections in 1990(Sony VGN-CS36TJ/Q Battery). This Assembly established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992, which became Republika Srpska in August 1992.

On 18 November 1991, the party branch in Bosnia and Herzegovina of the ruling party in the Republic of Croatia, the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), proclaimed the existence of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia, as a separate “political, cultural, economic and territorial whole”, on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina(Sony VGN-CS36TJ/P Battery), with Croat Defence Council (HVO) as its military part.[36] The Bosnian government did not recognize it. The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared Herzeg-Bosnia illegal, first on 14 September 1992 and again on 20 January 1994.[37][38]

A declaration of Bosnia and Herzegovina sovereignty on 15 October 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia on 29 February and 1 March 1992 boycotted by the great majority of the Serbs(Sony VGN-CS36TJ/J Battery). The turnout in the independence referendum was 63.4 per cent and 99.7 per cent of voters voted for independence.[39] Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence on 3 March 1992. Following a tense period of escalating tensions the opening shots in the incipient Bosnian conflict were fired when Serb paramilitary forces attacked Bosnian Croat villages around Capljina on 7 March 1992 (Sony VGN-CS36TJ/C Battery)and around Bosanski Brod and Bosniak town Gorazde on 15 March. These minor attacks were followed by much more serious Serb artillery attacks on Neum on 19 March and on Bosanski Brod on 24 March. The killing of a Bosniak civilian, woman (Suada Dilberovi?), on 5 April 1992 by a sniper, while she was demonstrating in Sarajevo against the raising of barricades by Bosnian Serbs(Sony VGN-CS36H/W Battery), is widely regarded as marking the start of warfare between the three major communities.[35]

Secret discussions between Franjo Tu?man and Slobodan Miloševi? on the division of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Serbia and Croatia were held as early as March 1991 known as Kara?or?evo agreement. Following the declaration of independence of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbs attacked different parts of the country(Sony VGN-CS36H/R Battery). The state administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina effectively ceased to function having lost control over the entire territory. The Serbs wanted control and possession of virtually all territories in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as a top priority of their mastermind plan of a “Greater Serbia”(Sony VGN-CS36H/Q Battery).

The Croats and their leader Tu?man also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Croatian. The policies of the Republic of Croatia and its leader Franjo Tu?man towards Bosnia and Herzegovina were never totally transparent and always included Franjo Tu?man’s ultimate aim of expanding Croatia’s borders(Sony VGN-CS36H/P Battery). Bosnian Muslims, the only ethnic group loyal to the Bosnian government, were an easy target, because the Bosnian government forces were poorly equipped and unprepared for the war.[40]

International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina increased diplomatic pressure for the Yugoslav People’s Army (JNA) to withdraw from the republic’s territory which they officially did. However, in fact(Sony VGN-CS36H/C Battery), the Bosnian Serb members of JNA simply changed insignia, formed the Army of Republika Srpska, and continued fighting. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers and various paramilitary forces from Serbia, and receiving extensive humanitarian, logistical and financial support from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia(Sony VGN-CS36H Battery), Republika Srpska’s offensives in 1992 managed to place much of the country under its control.[15]

Initially, the Serb forces attacked the non-Serb civilian population in Eastern Bosnia. Once towns and villages were securely in their hands, the Serb forces – military, police, the paramilitaries and, sometimes, even Serb villagers – applied the same pattern: Bosniak houses and apartments were systematically ransacked or burnt down(Sony VGN-CS36GJ/W Battery), Bosniak civilians were rounded up or captured, and sometimes beaten or killed in the process. 2.2 million refugees were displaced by the end of the war (of all three nationalities).[41]

Men and women were separated, with many of the men detained in the camps. The women and indeed some children, as young as twelve years of age, were kept in various detention centres where they had to live in intolerably unhygienic conditions(Sony VGN-CS33H Battery), where they were mistreated in many ways including being raped repeatedly. Serb soldiers or policemen would come to these detention centres, select one or more women, take them out and rape them.[42]

In June 1992 the focus switched to Novi Travnik and Gornji Vakuf where the Croat Defence Council (HVO) efforts to gain control were resisted. On 18 June 1992 the Bosnian Territorial Defence in Novi Travnik received an ultimatum from the HVO which included demands to abolish existing Bosnia and Herzegovina institutions(Sony VGN-CS320J/W Battery), establish the authority of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia and pledge allegiance to it, subordinate the Territorial Defense to the HVO and expel Muslim refugees, all within 24 hours. The attack was launched on June 19. The elementary school and the Post Office were attacked and damaged(Sony VGN-CS320J/R Battery).[43]

Gornji Vakuf was initially attacked by Croats on 20 June 1992, but the attack failed. The Graz agreement caused deep division inside the Croat community and strengthened the separation group, which led to the conflict with Bosniaks. One of the primary pro-union Croat leaders, Blaž Kraljevi? (leader of the Croatian Defence Forces (HOS) armed group) was killed by HVO soldiers in August 1992(Sony VGN-CS320J/Q Battery), which severely weakened the moderate group who hoped to keep the Bosnian Croat alliance alive.[44]

The situation became more serious in October 1992 when Croat forces attacked the Bosniak population in Prozor. According to Jadranko Prli? indictment, HVO forces cleansed most of the Muslims from the town of Prozor and several surrounding villages(Sony VGN-CS320J/P Battery).[36]

By 1993, when an armed conflict erupted between the predominantly Bosniak government in Sarajevo and the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia, about 70% of the country was controlled by Republika Srpska. Ethnic cleansing and civil rights violations against non-Serbs were rampant in these areas(Sony VGN-CS31Z/Q Battery). DNA teams have been used to collect evidence of the atrocities committed by Serbian forces during these campaigns.[45] One single most prominent example is the Srebrenica Massacre, ruled genocide by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. An estimated 7,000 Bosnians were killed by the Serbian political authorities(Sony VGN-CS31S/W Battery).[46]

In March 1994, the signing of the Washington Accords between the leaders of the republican government and Herzeg-Bosnia led to the creation of a joint Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which absorbed the territory of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia and that held by the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina(Sony VGN-CS31S/V Battery). The Federation soon liberated the small Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia.

A NATO bombing campaign began in August, 1995, against the Army of Republika Srpska, after the Srebrenica massacre. Meanwhile, a ground offensive by the allied forces of Croatia and Bosnia, based on the treaty in Split by Tudjman and Izetbegovi?, pushed the Serbs away from territories held in western Bosnia which paved the way to negotiations(Sony VGN-CS31S/T Battery). In December 1995, the signing of the Dayton Agreement in Dayton, Ohio by the presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Alija Izetbegovi?), Croatia (Franjo Tu?man), and Serbia (Slobodan Miloševi?) brought a halt to the fighting, roughly establishing the basic structure of the present-day state. A NATO-led peacekeeping force was immediately dispatched to Bosnia to enforce the deal(Sony VGN-CS31S/R Battery).

The number of identified victims is currently at 97,207, and the recent research estimates the total number to be less than 110,000 killed (civilians and military),[47][48][49] and 1.8 million displaced. This is being addressed by the International Commission on Missing Persons(Sony VGN-CS31S/P Battery).

According to numerous International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) judgments the conflict involved Bosnia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (later Serbia and Montenegro)[50] as well as Croatia.[51]

The Bosnian government charged Serbia of complicity in genocide in Bosnia during the war at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) (Sony VGN-CS27 Battery). The ICJ ruling of 26 February 2007 effectively determined the war’s nature to be international, though exonerating Serbia of direct responsibility for the genocide committed by Serb forces of Republika Srpska. The ICJ concluded, however, that Serbia failed to prevent genocide committed by Serb forces and failed to punish those who carried out the genocide(Sony VGN-CS26T/W Battery)especially general Ratko Mladi?, and bring them to justice.[52] Ratko Mladi? was arrested in a village in northern Serbia on 26 May 2011, being accused of directly orchestrating and overseeing the slaughter of 8,000 Muslim men and boys, amongst other genocide and war crime charges.[53]

The judges ruled that the criteria for genocide with the specific intent (dolus specialis) to destroy Bosnian Muslims were met only in Srebrenica or Eastern Bosnia in 1995(Sony VGN-CS26T/V Battery).[54] The court concluded that the crimes committed during the 1992–1995 war, may amount to crimes against humanity according to the international law, but that these acts did not, in themselves, constitute genocide.[55] The Court further decided that, following Montenegro’s declaration of independence in June, 2006, Serbia was the only respondent party in the case(Sony VGN-CS26T/T Battery), but that “any responsibility for past events involved at the relevant time the composite State of Serbia and Montenegro”.[56]

[edit]Geography

Main article: Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina

See also: List of mountains in Bosnia and Herzegovina, List of lakes in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and List of rivers of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Topographic map of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Various parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina: The coast of Neum; Igman mountain with the Olympic ski jumping hills covered in snow; and some landscape near Ivan mountain(Sony VGN-CS26T/R Battery).

Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia (932 km/579 mi) to the north and south-west, Serbia (302 km/188 mi) to the east, and Montenegro (225 km/140 mi) to the southeast. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E(Sony VGN-CS26T/Q Battery).

The country’s name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them. Bosnia occupies the northern areas which are roughly four fifths of the entire country, while Herzegovina occupies the rest in the south part of the country(Sony VGN-CS26T/P Battery).

The country is mostly mountainous, encompassing the central Dinaric Alps. The northeastern parts reach into the Pannonian basin, while in the south it borders the Adriatic. Dinaric Alps generally run in east-west direction, and get higher towards the south. The highest point of the country is peak Magli? at 2,386 m, at the Montenegrin border. Major mountains include Kozara(Sony VGN-CS26T/C Battery), Grme?, Vlaši?, ?vrsnica, Prenj, Romanija, Jahorina, Bjelašnica and Treskavica.

Overall, close to 50% of Bosnia and Herzegovina is forested. Most forest areas are in Central, Eastern and Western parts of Bosnia. Herzegovina has drier Mediterranean climate, with dominant karst topography. Northern Bosnia (Posavina) contains very fertile agricultural land along the river Sava and the corresponding area is heavily farmed(Sony VGN-CS26GW Battery). This farmland is a part of the Parapannonian Plain stretching into neighboring Croatia and Serbia. The country has only 20 kilometers (12 mi) of coastline,[8] around the town of Neum in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton. Although the city is surrounded by Croatian peninsulas, by the international law, Bosnia has a right of passage to the outer sea(Sony VGN-CS260DW Battery).

The major cities are the capital Sarajevo, Banja Luka in the northwest region known as Bosanska Krajina, Bijeljina and Tuzla in the northeast, Zenica and Doboj in the central part of Bosnia and Mostar, the capital of Herzegovina.

There are seven major rivers in Bosnia and Herzegovina[57]

The Sava is the largest river of the country, but it only forms its northern natural border with Croatia. It drains 76%[57] of the country’s territory into the Danube and the Black Sea(Sony VGN-CS260DQ Battery). Bosnia and Herzegovina is therefore also a member of the International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR).

The Una, Sana and Vrbas are right tributaries of Sava river. They are located in the northwestern region of Bosanska Krajina.

The Bosna river gave its name to the country, and is the longest river fully contained within it. It stretches through central Bosnia, from its source near Sarajevo to Sava in the north(Sony VGN-CS25H/W Battery).

The Drina flows through the eastern part of Bosnia, and for the most part it forms a natural border with Serbia.

The Neretva is the major river of Herzegovina and the only major river that flows south, into the Adriatic Sea.

Phytogeographically, Bosnia and Herzegovina belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region and Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region(Sony VGN-CS25H/R Battery). According to the WWF, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests.

[edit]Government and politics

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010) (Sony VGN-CS25H/Q Battery)

Main articles: Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH), Republika Srpska (RS), and Br?ko District (BD).

Building of the Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo

The Presidency Building in central Sarajevo.

Bosnia and Herzegovina has several levels of political structuring, according to the Dayton accord(Sony VGN-CS25H/P Battery). Most important of these levels is the division of the country into two entities: Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina covers 51% of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s total area, while Republika Srpska covers 49%. The entities, based largely on the territories held by the two warring sides at the time(Sony VGN-CS25H/C Battery), were formally established by the Dayton peace agreement in 1995 because of the tremendous changes in Bosnia and Herzegovina’s ethnic structure. Since 1996 the power of the entities relative to the State government has decreased significantly. Nonetheless, entities still have numerous powers to themselves. The Br?ko District in the north of the country was created in 2000 out of land from both entities(Sony VGN-CS25H Battery). It officially belongs to both, but is governed by neither, and functions under a decentralized system of local government. The Br?ko District has been praised for maintaining a multiethnic population and a level of prosperity significantly above the national average.[58]

The third level of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s political subdivision is manifested in cantons. They are unique to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina entity, which consists of ten of them(Sony VGN-CS23T/W Battery). All of them have their own cantonal government, which is under the law of the Federation as a whole. Some cantons are ethnically mixed and have special laws implemented to ensure the equality of all constituent people.

The fourth level of political division in Bosnia and Herzegovina is the municipalities. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided in 74 municipalities, and Republika Srpska in 63. Municipalities also have their own local government(Sony VGN-CS23T/Q Battery), and are typically based on the most significant city or place in their territory. As such, many municipalities have a long tradition and history with their present boundaries. Some others, however, were only created following the recent war after traditional municipalities were split by the Inter-Entity Boundary Line. Each canton in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of several municipalities, which are divided into local communities(Sony VGN-CS23H/S Battery).

Besides entities, cantons, and municipalities, Bosnia and Herzegovina also has four “official” cities. These are: Banja Luka, Mostar, Sarajevo, and East Sarajevo. The territory and government of the cities of Banja Luka and Mostar corresponds to the municipalities of the same name, while the cities of Sarajevo and East Sarajevo officially consist of several municipalities(Sony VGN-CS23H/B Battery). Cities have their own city government whose power is in between that of the municipalities and cantons (or the entity, in the case of Republika Srpska).

As a result of the Dayton Accords, the civilian peace implementation is supervised by the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina selected by the Peace Implementation Council. The High Representative has many governmental and legislative powers, including the dismissal of elected and non-elected officials(Sony VGN-CS23H Battery) (Sony VGN-CS23G/W Battery). More recently, several central institutions have been established (such as defense ministry, security ministry, state court, indirect taxation service and so on) in the process of transferring part of the jurisdiction from the entities to the state.

The representation of the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina is by elites who represent the country’s three major groups, with each having a guaranteed share of power(Sony VGN-CS23G/Q Battery).

The Chair of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina rotates among three members (Bosniak, Serb, Croat), each elected as the Chair for an eight-month term within their four-year term as a member. The three members of the Presidency are elected directly by the people (Federation votes for the Bosniak/Croat, Republika Srpska for the Serb) (Sony VGN-CS23G/P Battery).

The Chair of the Council of Ministers is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the House of Representatives. He or she is then responsible for appointing a Foreign Minister, Minister of Foreign Trade, and others as appropriate.

The Parliamentary Assembly is the lawmaking body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of two houses: the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives(Sony VGN-CS23G Battery). The House of Peoples has 15 delegates, two-thirds of which come from the Federation (5 Croat and 5 Bosniaks) and one-third from the Republika Srpska (5 Serbs). The House of Representatives is composed of 42 Members, two-thirds elected from the Federation and one-third elected from the Republika Srpska.

The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the supreme(Sony VGN-CS220DW Battery), final arbiter of legal matters. It is composed of nine members: four members are selected by the House of Representatives of the Federation, two by the Assembly of the Republika Srpska, and three by the President of the European Court of Human Rights after consultation with the Presidency(Sony VGN-CS220DT Battery).

However, the highest political authority in the country is the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the chief executive officer for the international civilian presence in the country. Since 1995, the High Representative has been able to bypass the elected parliamentary assembly, and since 1997 has been able to remove elected officials(Sony VGN-CS220DR Battery). The methods selected by the High Representative have been criticized as undemocratic.[59] International supervision is to end when the country is deemed politically and democratically stable and self-sustaining.

[edit]Military

Main article: Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnian soldiers armed with Yugoslavian-made SKS rifles

The Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were unified into a single entity in 2005, with the merger of the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Army of Republika Srpska, which had defended their respective regions. The Ministry of Defense had been founded in 2004(Sony VGN-CS220DQ Battery).

The Bosnian military consists of the Bosnian Ground Forces and Air Force and Air Defense. The Ground Forces number 10,000 active and 5,000 reserve personnel. They are armed with a mix of American, Yugoslavian, Soviet, and European-made weaponry, vehicles, and military equipment. The Air Force and Air Defense Forces has 2,500 personnel and about 45 aircraft(Sony VGN-CS220DP Battery). All of its aircraft are utility helicopters and basic trainers. The Air Defense Forces operate MANPAD hand-held missiles, SAM missile batteries, anti-aircraft cannons, and radar. Almost all of its anti-aircraft equipment is of Soviet origin, though it also operates some U.S. and Swedish hardware(Sony VGN-CS21Z/Q Battery).

[edit]Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Bosnia and Herzegovina

See also: Accession of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the European Union

EU integration is one of the main political objectives of Bosnia and Herzegovina, it initiated the Stabilisation and Association Process in 2007. Countries participating in the SAP have been offered the possibility to become, once they fulfill the necessary conditions(Sony VGN-CS21S/W Battery), Member States of the EU. Bosnia and Herzegovina is therefore a potential candidate country for EU accession.[60] The implementation of the Dayton Accords of 1995 has focused the efforts of policymakers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the international community, on regional stabilization in the countries-successors of the former Yugoslavia(Sony VGN-CS21S/V Battery). Within Bosnia and Herzegovina, relations with its neighbors of Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro have been fairly stable since the signing of the Dayton Agreement in 1995.

On April 23, 2010, Bosnia and Herzegovina received the Membership Action Plan from NATO, which is the last step before full membership in the alliance. Full membership is expected in 2014 or 2015, depending on the progress of reforms(Sony VGN-CS21S/T Battery).

[edit]Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Demographic history of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Further information: Ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and List of people from Bosnia and Herzegovina

Ethnic structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina by settlements in 1991:

A Mosque, an Eastern Orthodox church and a Roman Catholic church in Bosanska Krupa(Sony VGN-CS21S/R Battery)

Bosnia and Herzgovina is home to three ethnic “constituent peoples”: Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats. Tensions between the three constitutional peoples remain high and often provoke political disagreements.

According to the 1991 census, Bosnia and Herzegovina had a population of 4,377,033, while the 1996 UNHCR unofficial census showed a decrease to 3,919,953(Sony VGN-CS21S/P Battery).

Ethnically, according to the last official census data from 1991, 1,902,956 (43.5%) are Bosniaks, 1,366,104 (31.2%) Serbs and 760,852 (17.4%) Croats, with 242,682 (5.5%) Yugoslavs. The remaining 2.4% of the population – numbering 104,439 – consisted of various other ethnicities including, but not limited to, Jews, Romas(Sony VGN-CS19/R Battery), Albanians and Montenegrins. According to the 1996 UNHCR census, 1,805,910 (46.1%) are Bosniaks, 1,484,530 (37.9%) Serbs, 571,317 (14.6%) Croats and 58,196 (1.4%) others and unspecified. According to 2000 data from the CIA World Factbook, Bosnia’s three largest ethnic groups have the following percentages – the Bosniaks (48%), the Serbs (37.1%) and the Croats (14.3%)(Sony VGN-CS19/Q Battery).[2] Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian are official languages but all three are mutually intelligible. There is a strong correlation between ethnic identity and religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Muslims constitute 40% of the population; Serb Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholics 15%, and Protestants 1%; and other groups, including mostly non-religious, 13%(Sony VGN-CS19/P Battery).[61]

Large population migrations during the Yugoslav wars in the 1990s have caused demographic shifts in the country. No census has been taken since 1991/96, and political disagreements have made it impossible to organize one. Nevertheless, a census has been planned for 2012.[62] As almost all of the post-war data is simply an estimate(Sony VGN-CS17H/W Battery), a census would be a statistical, inclusive, and objective way to analyze the demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Most sources, however, estimate the population to be about four million, representing a decrease of 500,000 since 1991.

The last official estimate by BHAS (Agency for Statistics of BiH) for 2011 shows a decrease of the population to 3,839,737.[3] Other BHAS estimation of population done on 30 June 2009 is 3,842,566(Sony VGN-CS17H/Q Battery).[63]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina

See also: List of companies of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Avaz Twist Tower is the headquarters of the newspaper Dnevni avaz

Lake Sani?ani fish farm near Prijedor

Sarajevska Pivara, a Sarajevo brewery

Radon Plaza Business Center

Bosnia faces the dual problem of rebuilding a war-torn country and introducing market reforms to its formerly centrally planned economy. One legacy of the previous era is a greatly overstaffed military industry; under former leader Josip Broz Tito(Sony VGN-CS16T/W Battery), military industries were promoted in the republic, resulting in the development of a large share of Yugoslavia’s defense plants but fewer commercially-viable firms.

For the most of Bosnia’s history, agriculture has been based on small and inefficient privately owned farms; food has traditionally been a net import for the republic.[65]

The war in the 1990s caused a dramatic change in the Bosnian economy(Sony VGN-CS16T/T Battery).[66] GDP fell by 75% and the destruction of physical infrastructure devastated the economy.[67] While much of the production capacity has been restored, the Bosnian economy still faces considerable difficulties. Figures show GDP and per capita income increased 10% from 2003 to 2004; this and Bosnia’s shrinking national debt being positive trends, but high unemployment and a large trade deficit remain cause for concern(Sony VGN-CS16T/R Battery).

The national currency is the (Euro-pegged) Convertible Mark (KM), controlled by the currency board. Annual inflation is the lowest relative to other countries in the region at 1.9% in 2004.[68] The international debt was $3.1 billion (2005 est) – the smallest amount of debt owed of all the former Yugoslav republics. Real GDP growth rate was 5% for 2004 according to the Bosnian Central Bank of BiH and Statistical Office of Bosnia and Herzegovina(Sony VGN-CS16T/Q Battery).

Bosnia and Herzegovina has one of the highest income equality rankings in the world, ranking eighth out of 193 nations.[69]

According to Eurostat data, Bosnia and Herzegovina’s PPS GDP per capita stood at 31 per cent of the EU average in 2010.[70]

Overall value of foreign direct investment (1999–2008):[71]

1999: €166 million

2000: €159 million

2001: €133 million

2002: €282 million

2003: €338 million

2004: €534 million

2005: €421 million

2006: €556 million

2007: €1.628 billion

2008: €1.083 billion

From 1994 to 2008, €5.3 billion were invested in the country.[72]

The top investor countries (1994–2007):[71]

Austria (€1,294 million)

Serbia (€773 million)

Croatia (€434 million)

Slovenia (€427 million)

Switzerland (€337 million)

Germany (€270 million)

Italy (€94.29 million)

Netherlands (€63.52 million)

United Arab Emirates (€56.70 million)

Turkey (€54.81 million)

All Other Countries (€892.54 million)

Foreign investments by sector for (1994–2007):[71]

37.7% Manufacturing

21% Banking

4.9% Services

9.6% Trade

0.30% Transport

1% Tourism(Sony VGN-CS16T/P Battery)

[edit]Communications

Main article: Telecommunications in Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Bosnian communications market was fully liberalised in January 2006. There are three landline telephone providers, although each one predominantly serves a partile services are provided by three operators, with nationwide services. Mobile data services are also available, including high-speed EDGE and 3G services(Sony VGN-CS13T/W Battery).[73]

Oslobo?enje (Liberation), founded in 1943, is one of the country’s longest running continuously circulating newspapers. There are many national publications, only some of which include the Dnevni Avaz (Daily Voice), founded in 1995, and Jutarnje Novine (Morning News) in circulation in Sarajevo(Sony VGN-CS13H/W Battery).[74] Other local periodicals include the Croatian newspaper Hrvatska rije? and the Bosnian magazine Start, as well as the weekly newspapers Slobodna Bosna (Free Bosnia) and BH Dani (BH Days). Novi Plamen, a monthly magazine, is the most left-wing publication currently. The international news station Al Jazeera maintains a sister channel that caters to the Balkans region(Sony VGN-CS13H/R Battery), Al Jazeera Balkans, broadcasting out of and based in Sarajevo.[75]

Additionally, the country is the most liberated in terms of freedom of the press in the region, ranking 43rd internationally.[76]

[edit]Tourism

Various tourist attractions: Sarajevo, the capital and the largest city in Bosnia and Herzegovina; Marian shrine of Me?ugorje; general view of Mostar (with the Stari Most); Trebinje town and river; and the Mehmed Paša Sokolovi? Bridge in Višegrad(Sony VGN-CS13H/Q Battery).

Main article: Tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina

See also: Sites of interest in Sarajevo

According to an estimation of the World Tourism Organization, Bosnia and Herzegovina will have the third highest tourism growth rate in the world between 1995 and 2020.[77]

Lonely Planet, in ranking the best cities in the world, ranked Sarajevo, the national capital and host of the 1984 Winter Olympic Games, as #43, ahead of Dubrovnik at #59, Ljubljana at #84, Bled at #90, Belgrade at #113, and Zagreb at #135(Sony VGN-CS13H/P Battery).[78] Tourism in Sarajevo is chiefly focused on historical, religious, and cultural aspects. Bosnia has also become an increasingly popular skiing and Ecotourism destination.

More recently Sarajevo was nominated one of Top 10 cities to visit in 2010 in the 2010 edition of Lonely Planet’s “Best In Travel”.[79]

Bosnia and Herzegovina remains arguably one of the last undiscovered natural regions of the southern area of the Alps(Sony VGN-CS11Z/T Battery), with vast tracks of wild and untouched nature attracting adventurers and nature lovers. The central Dinaric Alps are favored by hikers and mountaineers, containing both Mediterreanean and Alpine climates. Whitewater rafting is somewhat of a national pastime, with three rivers, including the deepest river canyon in Europe, the Tara River Canyon(Sony VGN-CS11Z/R Battery). [77]

[edit]Tourist attractions

Some of the tourist attractions in Bosnia and Herzegovina include:

Sarajevo The “Olympic City”. Scientific, cultural, tourist and commercial center of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Called the “European Jerusalem”;

Shrine of Our Lady of Me?ugorje (with an Annual Youth Festival), the Catholic pilgrimage site of a famous Marian apparition;

Mostar, “City on Neretva”, “City of Sunshine”, the UNESCO site of Stari most and old town Mostar(Sony VGN-CS11S/W Battery);

Višegrad, the UNESCO site of the Mehmed Paša Sokolovi? Bridge;

Banja Luka, the “Green City” with various cultural sights like Kastel fortress and Ferhadija mosque;

Biha? and the river Una with its waterfalls and the Una River, within Una National Park;

Jajce, historical city of the Bosnian Kings, also famous for being the city that hosted the foundation of Yugoslavia and its famous waterfalls(Sony VGN-CS11S/Q Battery);

Prijedor, Old City Mosque (National heritage), Kozara National Park and Bosnia’s largest World War II monument at Mrakovica;

Tuzla Birthplace of Meša Selimovi? and the “salt lakes” of Tuzla;

The Neretva river and the Rakitnica river canyons in Upper Neretva;

The Trebižat river and its waterfalls Kravice and Ko?uša;

The Buna and its spring Vrelo Bune with the historical town of Blagaj;

The Lower Tara river canyon, the deepest canyon in Europe;

The Peru?ica ancient forest, one of the last two remaining primeval forests in Europ(Sony VGN-CS11S/P Battery)e, and the Sutjeska river canyon, both within Sutjeska National Park;

Po?itelj historical village;

Mount Bjelašnica and Jahorina, sites of the XIV Olympic Winter Games;

Neum on the coast. City on the Adriatic shore of Bosnia-Herzegovina;

Doboj and its 13th century fortress;

Stolac, the Begovina neighborhood and Radimlja tombstones;

Visoko, city of Bosnian Kings and the site of the alleged Bosnian pyramids;

Tešanj, one of the oldest cities in Bosnia with its old town;

Bijeljina, known for its agriculture and ethno village Staniši?HP Presario dv6000T Battery;

Lukavac – Modrac Lake (Jezero Modrac) the largest artificial lake in Bosnia and Herzegovina;

Travnik – The birthplace of Ivo Andri? and site of old town Travnik, once the historical capital city of the Kingdom of Bosnia;

Ostrožac Castle – 16th century castle built by the Ottomans and a second addition added by the Habsburg familiyHP Presario B1200 Battery;

Gornji Vakuf – Mountain Vranica & Kula Mehmed bega Sto?anina.

[edit]Education

Faculty of Law, University of Sarajevo

Main article: Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Higher education has a long and rich tradition in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the first classifiable higher-education institution having been established a school of Sufi philosophy by Gazi Husrev-beg in 1531, with numerous other religious schools following suit over time. In 1887, under the Austro-Hungarian EmpireHP Pavilion ZX5200 Battery, a Sharia Law School began a five-year program.[80] In the 1940s the University of Sarajevo became the city’s first secular higher education institute. In the 1950s post-bachelaurate graduate degrees became available.[81] Severely damaged during the war, it was recently rebuilt in partnership with more than 40 other universitiesHP Pavilion ZX5000 Battery. There are various other institutions of higher education, including: University “Džemal Bijedi?” of Mostar, University of Banja Luka, University of Mostar, University of Tuzla, American University in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is held in high regard as one of the most prestigious creative arts academies in the regionHP Pavilion ZV6000 Battery.

Also, Bosnia and Herzegovina is home to several private and international higher education institutions, some of which are:

Sarajevo School of Science and Technology

International University of Sarajevo

American University in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Sarajevo Graduate School of Business

International Burch University

Primary schooling lasts for nine years. Secondary education is provided by general and technical secondary schools (typically Gymnasiums where studies typically last for four years. All forms of secondary schooling include an element of vocational trainingHP Pavilion ZV5200 Battery. Pupils graduating from general secondary schools obtain the Matura and can enroll in any tertiary educational institution or academy by passing a qualification examination prescribed by the governing body or institution. Students graduating technical subjects obtain a DiplomaHP Pavilion ZV5000 Battery.[82]

[edit]Culture

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010)

National and University Library of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Statues for Meša Selimovi? (left) and Ismet Mujezinovi? in Tuzla

Main article: Culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina

[edit]ArchitectureHP Pavilion ZT1290 Battery

Main article: Architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina is largely influenced by four major periods where political and social changes influenced the creation of distinct cultural and architectural habits of the population. Each period made its influence felt and contributed to a greater diversity of cultures and architectural language in this regionHP Pavilion ZT1271 Battery.

[edit]Literature

Main article: Literature of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina has a rich literature, including a Nobel prize winner Ivo Andri? and poets such as Antun Branko Šimi?, Aleksa Šanti?, Jovan Du?i? and Mak Dizdar, writers such as Meša Selimovi?, Semezdin Mehmedinovi?, Miljenko Jergovi?, Isak Samokovlija, Abdulah Sidran, Petar Ko?i?, Aleksandar HemonHP Pavilion ZT1270 Battery, and Nedžad Ibrišimovi?. The National Theater was founded 1919 in Sarajevo and its first director was famous drama-play writer Branislav Nuši?. Magazines such as Novi Plamen, Most and Sarajevske biljeznice are some of the more prominent publications covering cultural and literary themesHP Pavilion ZT1261 Battery.

Besides native Bosnian literature there are many books which cover the nineties Bosnian conflict written by international authors. A few books worthy of mention are:

Slaughterhouse: Bosnia and the Failure of the West by David Rieff

Love Thy Neighbor: A Story of War by Peter Maass

Safe Area Gorazde: The War in Eastern Bosnia 1992–1995 by Joe Sacco, and Christopher HitchensHP Pavilion ZT1260 Battery

The Balkans: Nationalism, War & the Great Powers, 1804–1999 by Misha Glenny

Zlata’s Diary: A Child’s Life in Wartime Sarajevo, by Zlata Filipovi?

and in novels:

From Bosnia with Love by Javed Mohammed, S: A novel about the Balkans by Slavenka Drakuli?.

[edit]Art

Main article: Art of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Ste?ak from Radimlja near Stolac, 13th century

The art of Bosnia and Herzegovina was always evolving and ranged from the original medieval tombstones called Ste?ci to paintings in Kotromani? courtHP Pavilion ZT1250 Battery. However, only with the arrival of Austro-Hungarians did the painting renaissance in Bosnia really begin to flourish. The first educated artists from European academies appeared with the beginning of 20th century. Among those are: Gabrijel Jurki?, Petar Tiješi?, Karlo Miji?, Špiro Bocari?, Petar Šain, ?oko Mazali?, Roman Petrovi? and Lazar Drlja?aHP Pavilion ZT1243 Battery. Later, artists such as: Ismet Mujezinovi?, Vojo Dimitrijevi?, Ivo Šeremet, and Mica Todorovi? amongst others came to rise. After World War II artists like: Virgilije Nevjesti?, Bekir Misirli?, Ljubo Lah, Meho Sefi?, Franjo Likar, Mersad Berber, Ibrahim Ljubovi?, Dževad Hozo, Afan Rami?, Safet Zec, Ismar Mujezinovi? and Mehmed Zaimovi? rose in popularityHP Pavilion ZT1235 Battery. In 2007, Ars Aevi, a museum of contemporary art that includes works by renowned world artists was founded in Sarajevo.

[edit]Music

Main article: Music of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Vedran Smailovi?, the cellist of Sarajevo.

Typical Bosnian and Herzegovinian songs are ganga, rera, and the traditional slavic music for the folk dances such as kolo and from Ottoman era the most popular is sevdalinka. Pop and Rock music has a tradition here as wellHP Pavilion ZT1233 Battery, with the more famous musicians including Dino Zoni?, Goran Bregovi?, Davorin Popovi?, Kemal Monteno, Zdravko ?oli?, Edo Maajka,Hari Varesanovic and Dino Merlin. Very popular are also the numerous Slavic Metal bands, performing an interesting combination of upbeat tempos and traiditional tunesHP Pavilion ZT1231S Battery. Among them Silent Kingdom, Emir Hot, D’n'K, Toxicdeath, Agonize and Irina Kapetanovi?, often performing with folk metal musicians from other neighbouring slavic countries like Stribog (Croatia), Svarica (Croatia/Bosnia) and Arkona (Russia). Also, it would be unfair not to mention some of the talented composers such as ?or?e Novkovi?, Esad Arnautali?HP Pavilion ZT1231 Battery, Kornelije Kova?, and many pop and rock bands, for example, Bijelo Dugme, Indexi, Plavi Orkestar, Zabranjeno Pušenje, who were among the leading ones in the former Yugoslavia. Bosnia is home to the composer Dušan Šesti?, the creator of the current national anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina and father of singer Marija Šesti?HP Pavilion ZT1230 Battery, composer Saša Loši? and pianist Sasha Toperich. In the villages, especially in Herzegovina, Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats play the ancient Gusle. The gusle is used mainly to recite epic poems in a usually dramatic tone.

[edit]Cinema

Main article: List of Bosnia-Herzegovina films

Notable Bosnian film-makers are Hajrudin Krvavac-Šiba, Emir Kusturica (known for the Palme d’Or-winning 1985 film When Father Was Away on Business, among others) HP Pavilion ZT1213 Battery, Mirza Idrizovi?, Aleksandar Jev?evi?, Ivica Mati?, Danis Tanovi? (known for the Academy Award– and Golden Globe–winning 2001 film No Man’s Land), Ademir Kenovi?, Benjamin Filipovi?, Jasmin Dizdar, Pjer Žalica, Jasmila Žbani?, Dino Mustafi?, Sr?an Vuleti?, Aida Begi?, among many othersHP Pavilion ZT1211S Battery.

[edit]Sports

Bosnia and Herzegovina has produced many athletes. Many of them were famous in the Yugoslav national teams before Bosnia and Herzegovina’s independence.

The most important international sporting event in the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina was the hosting of the 14th Winter Olympics, held in Sarajevo from the 7th to 19 February 1984. Some notable local Olympians wereHP Pavilion ZT1211 Battery:

Rome, 1960: Tomislav Knez and Velimir Sombolac (football),

Tokyo, 1964: Mirsad Fazlagi? (football),

Munich, 1972: Abaz Arslanagi?, Milorad Karali?, Nebojša Popovi?, ?or?e Lavrini?, Dobrivoje Sele? (handball)

Moscow, 1980: Mirza Delibaši? and Ratko Radovanovi? (basketball)

Los Angeles, 1984: Zdravko Ra?enovi?, Zlatan Arnautovi? (handball) and Anton Josipovi? (boxing).

The Borac handball club has won seven Yugoslav Handball Championships, as well as the European Championship Cup in 1976 and the International Handball Federation Cup in 1991HP Pavilion ZT1210 Battery.

The Bosna basketball club from Sarajevo were European Champions in 1979. The Yugoslav national basketball team, which medaled in every world championship from 1963 through 1990, included Bosnian players such as Dražen Dalipagi? and Mirza Delibaši?. Bosnia and Herzegovina regularly qualifies for the European Championship in BasketballHP Pavilion ZT1201 Battery. Jedinstvo Aida women’s basketball club, based in Tuzla, has won the 1989 European Championships in Florence.

The Tuzla-Sinalco karate club from Tuzla has won the most Yugoslav championships, as well as four European Championships and one World Championship.

The Bosnian chess team has been Champion of Yugoslavia seven times, in addition to club ŠK Bosna Sarajevo winning four Chess Club CupHP Pavilion ZT1200 Battery : 1994 in Lyon, 1999 in Bugojno, 2000 in Neum, and 2001 in Kallithea Elassonos. Chess grandmaster Borki Predojevi? has also won two European Championships: Under-12 years Litochoro (Greece) in 1999, and Under-14 years Kallithea Elassonos (Greece) in 2001, and in 2003 won World Championship Under-16 years Halkidiki (Greece)HP Pavilion ZT1195 Battery. The most impressive success of Bosnian Chess was his runner-up position in Men´s Olympiads of 1994 in Moscow, featuring Grandmasters Predrag Nikoli?, Ivan Sokolov, Bojan Kurajica and Emir Dizdarevi?.

Middle-weight boxer Marijan Beneš has won several Championships of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Yugoslav Championships and the European Championship.[83] In 1978 he won the World Title against Elisha Obed from the BahamasHP Pavilion ZT1192 Battery. Another middle-weight boxer, Anton Josipovi? won the Olympic Gold in Los Angeles, 1984. He also won Yugoslav Championship in 1982, the Championship of the Balkans in 1983, and the Belgrade Trophy in 1985.

Association football is the most popular sport in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It dates from 1903, but its popularity grew significantly after World War I. At the local level, FK Sarajevo (1967 and 1984), Željezni?ar (1972) have both won the Yugoslav ChampionshipHP Pavilion ZT1190 Battery. The former Yugoslav national football team has included a number of Bosnian players, such as Josip Katalinski, Dušan Bajevi?, Miroslav Blaževi?, Ivica Osim, Safet Suši?, Idriz Hoši? and Mirsad Fazlagi?.

Today, the team of Bosnia and Herzegovina has modern footballers like Edin Džeko, Zvjezdan Misimovi?, Vedad Ibiševi?, Emir Spahi?HP Pavilion ZT1185 Battery, Asmir Begovi?, Miralem Pjani?, Sejad Salihovi? and others. The independent Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team has not qualified for a European or World Championship but has played twice in the play-off stages. For all time matches: Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team results (1995-2011) HP Pavilion ZT1182 Battery.

Bosnian national teams have struggled to draft the best national players. Many players born in Bosnia and Herzegovina choose to play for other countries because of their ethnic identification and because of higher salaries offered by other teams. For example Mario Stani? and Mile Miti? were both born in Bosnia and HerzegovinaHP Pavilion ZT1180 Battery, but play for Croatia and Serbia respectively. Other internationally famous players from Bosnia and Herzegovina, who have made similar choices, are: Darijo Srna, Mladen Petri?, Neven Suboti?, Vedran ?orluka, Zlatan Ibrahimovi? (born and raised in Sweden, his mother a Croat, his father a Bosnian), Marko Marin, Zoran Savi?HP Pavilion ZT1175 Battery, Vladimir Radmanovi?, Zlatko Junuzovi?, Aleksandar Nikoli?, Savo Miloševi?, and Zdravko Kuzmanovi?.

Bosnia and Herzegovina was the world champion of volleyball at the 2004 Summer Paralympics. Many among those on the team lost their legs in the Bosnian War.

[edit]Cuisine

Main article: Bosnia and Herzegovina cuisine

?evap?i?i in somun.

Bosnian cuisine uses many spices, in moderate quantities. Most dishes are light, as they are cooked in lots of water; the sauces are fully naturalHP Pavilion ZT1172 Battery, consisting of little more than the natural juices of the vegetables in the dish. Typical ingredients include tomatoes, potatoes, onions, garlic, peppers, cucumbers, carrots, cabbage, mushrooms, spinach, zucchini, dried beans, fresh beans, plums, milk, paprika and cream called Pavlaka. Bosnian cuisine is balanced between Western and Eastern influencesHP Pavilion ZT1171 Battery. As a result of the Ottoman administration for almost 500 years, Bosnian food is closely related to Turkish, Greek, and other former Ottoman and Mediterranean cuisines. However, because of years of Austrian rule, there are many influences from Central Europe. Typical meat dishes include primarily beef and lamb. Some local specialties are ?evapi, burekHP Pavilion ZT1170 Battery, dolma, sarma, pilaf, goulash, ajvar and a whole range of Eastern sweets. Local wines come from Herzegovina where the climate is suitable for growing grapes. Herzegovinian loza (similar to Italian Grappa but less sweet) is very popular. Plum (rakija) or apple (jabukova?a) alcohol beverages are produced in the north. In the southHP Pavilion ZT1162 Battery, distilleries used to produce vast quantities of brandy and supply all of ex-Yugoslavian alcohol factories (brandy is the base of most alcoholic drinks).

[edit]Leisure activities

Coffeehouses, where Bosnian coffee is served in džezva with rahat lokum and sugar cubes, proliferate Sarajevo and every city in the country. Coffee drinking is a favorite Bosnian pastime and part of the culture. Bosnians are believed to be some of the heaviest coffee drinkers in the worldHP Pavilion ZT1161 Battery.

The country that is now Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age. Culturally, politically and socially, the country has one of the richest histories in the region, having been first settled by the Slavic peoples that populate the area today from the 6th through to the 9th centuries AD(Sony VGN-FW27T/H Battery). They then established the first independent Banate in the 12th century upon the arrival and convergence of people that would eventually come to call themselves Dobri Bošnjani (literally “Good Bosnians”). This evolved into the Kingdom of Bosnia in the 14th century, after which it was annexed into the Ottoman Empire(Sony VGN-FW27/W Battery), under whose rule it would remain from the mid 15th to the late 19th century. The Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until the end of World War I. Following the dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia(Sony VGN-FW27/B Battery), the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by a bloody war, lasting until late 1995.

Today, the country maintains high literacy, life expectancy and education levels and is one of the most frequently-visited countries in the region.[10] Bosnia and Herzegovina is regionally and internationally renowned for its natural beauty and cultural heritage inherited from six historical civilizations, its cuisine(Sony VGN-FW26T/B Battery), winter sports, its eclectic and unique architecture and the Sarajevo Film Festival and Sarajevo Jazz Festival, both the largest and most prominent of their kind in Southeastern Europe.[11][12]

The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, a term unique for Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third. Regardless of ethnicity(Sony VGN-FW25T/B Battery), a citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina is often identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a regional rather than ethnic distinction, and the region of Herzegovina has no precisely defined borders of its own. Moreover, the country was simply called “Bosnia” (without Herzegovina) until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the nineteenth century. (Sony VGN-FW21Z Battery)

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a parliamentary republic, which has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. However, the central government’s power is highly limited, as the country is largely decentralized and comprises two autonomous entities(Sony VGN-FW21M Battery): the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska, with a third region, the Br?ko District, governed under local government. The country is a potential candidate for membership to the European Union and has been a candidate for NATO membership since April 2010, when it received a Membership Action Plan at the summit in Tallinn(Sony VGN-FW21L Battery). Additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008.

Etymology

The first preserved mention of the name “Bosnia” is in De Administrando Imperio, a politico-geographical handbook written by the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII in the mid-10th century (between 948 and 952) describing the “small country” (Sony VGN-FW21J Battery) (?????? in Greek) of “Bosona” (??????).[14] The Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja from 1172-1196 of Bar’s Roman Catholic Christian Archbishop Grgur names Bosnia, and references an earlier source from the year of 753 – the De Regno Sclavorum (Of the Realm of Slavs). The name “Bosnia” probably comes from the name of the Bosna river around which it has been historically based(Sony VGN-FW21E Battery), which was recorded in the Roman era under the name Bossina.[15] More direct roots of the river’s names are unknown. Philologist Anton Mayer proposed a connection with the Indo-European root *bos or *bogh, meaning “running water”.[16] Certain Roman sources similarly mention Bathinus flumen as a name of the Illyrian Bosona(Sony VGN-FW19 Battery), both of which would mean “running water” as well.[16] Other theories involve the rare Latin term Bosina, meaning boundary, and possible Slavic origins.[16]

The origins of “Herzegovina” can be identified with more precision. During the Early Middle Ages the region was known as Hum, from the Zachlumoi tribe of southern Slavs which inhabited it(Sony VGN-FW17W Battery). In the 1440s, the region was ruled by the powerful nobleman Stefan Vuk?i? Kosa?a. In a document sent to Friedrich III on January 20, 1448, Stefan Vuk?i? Kosa?a called himself “Herzog of Saint Sava, Lord of Hum and Primorje, Grand Duke of Bosnia”. Herzog is the German for “duke”, and so the lands he controlled later became known as Herzegovina (Sony VGN-FW17T/H Battery) (“Dukedom”, from the addition of -ovina, “land”).[15] The region was administered by the Ottomans as the sanjak and then pashaluk of Hersek. The name Herzegovina was first included in the official name of the then Ottoman province in the mid-19th century. (Sony VGN-FW17/B Battery)

On initial proclamation of independence in 1992 the country’s official name was the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina but following the 1995 Dayton Agreement and the new constitution that accompanied it the name was officially changed to Bosnia and Herzegovina(Sony VGN-FW15T Battery).

[edit]History

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina

[edit]Early history

Main article: Early history of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia has been inhabited since at least the Neolithic age. The earliest Neolithic population became known in the Antiquity as the Illyrians. Celtic migrations in the 4th century BC were also notable. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages(Sony VGN-FW145E/W Battery). Conflict between the Illyrians and Romans started in 229 BC, but Rome did not complete its annexation of the region until AD 9.

Walls of ancient Daorson, Ošani?i near Stolac, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 3rd century BC.

It was precisely in what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina that Rome fought one of the most difficult battles in its history since the Punic Wars, as described by the Roman historian Suetonius(Sony VGN-FW139E/H Battery).[17] This was the Roman campaign against the revolt of indigenous communities from Illyricum, known in history as the Great Illyrian Revolt, and also as the Pannonian revolt, or Bellum Batonianum, the latter named after two leaders of the rebellious Illyrian communities, Bato/Baton of the Daesitiates, and Bato of the Breuci(Sony VGN-FW139E/H Battery).[18]

The Great Illyrian revolt was a rising up of Illyrians against the Romans, more specifically a revolt against Tiberius’ attempt to recruit them for his war against the Germans. The Illyrians put up a fierce resistance to the most powerful army on earth at the time[citation needed] (the Roman Army) for four years (AD 6 to AD 9), but they were finally subdued by Rome in AD 9(Sony VGN-FW11S Battery).

The last Illyrian stronghold, of which their defence won the admiration of Roman historians, is said to have been Arduba.[19] Bato of Daesitiates was captured and taken to Italy. It is alleged that when Tiberius asked Bato and the Daesitiates why they had rebelled, Baton was reputed to have answered: “You Romans are to blame for this(Sony VGN-FW11M Battery); for you send as guardians of your flocks, not dogs or shepherds, but wolves.” Bato spent the rest of his life in the Italian town of Ravenna.[20]

In the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from the entire Roman Empire settled among the Illyrians, and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region(Sony VGN-FW11 Battery).[15]

The land was originally part of Illyria up until the Roman occupation. Following the split of the Roman Empire between 337 and 395 AD, Dalmatia and Pannonia became parts of the Western Roman Empire. Some claim that the region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455 AD. It subsequently changed hands between the Alans and the Huns(Sony VGN-FS92S Battery). By the 6th century, Emperor Justinian had reconquered the area for the Byzantine Empire. The Illyrians were conquered by the Avars in the 6th century.

[edit]Medieval Bosnia

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (958–1463)

Tvrtko I of Bosnia ruled in 1353–1366 and again in 1367–1377 as ban and in 1377–1391 as the first King of Bosnia.

Expansion of the Bosnian kingdom in the XIV century

Modern knowledge of the political situation in the west Balkans during the Early Middle Ages is unclear. Upon their arrival, the Slavs brought with them a tribal social structure which probably fell apart and gave way to Feudalism only with Frankish penetration into the region in the late 9th century(Sony VGN-FS92PS Battery). The Slavic tribes also brought their mythology and pagan system of beliefs, the Rodovjerje. In particular, Perun / ?????, the highest god of the pantheon and the god of thunder and lightning is also commonly found in Bosnian toponymy, for instance in the name of Mount Perun (Perunova Gora / ???????? ????). Along with the Slavic settlers(Sony VGN-FS790 Battery), the native Illyrians were Christianized. Bosnia and Herzegovina, because of its geographic position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process, which presumably originated from the urban centers along the Dalmatian coast. Thus, Slavic Bosnian tribes remained pagans for a longer time, and finally converted to the Bogumil Christian faith(Sony VGN-FS780/W Battery).

The principalities of Serbia and Croatia split control of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 9th and 10th century, but by the High Middle Ages political circumstance led to the area being contested between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the early 12th century(Sony VGN-FS775P/H Battery), Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as an independent state under the rule of local bans.[15]

The first[verification needed] Bosnian monarch was Ban Bori?. The second[verification needed] was Ban Kulin whose rule marked the start of a controversy with the Bosnian Church, because he allowed an indigenous Bogomilism sect considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church(Sony VGN-FS750P/W Battery). In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy and embraced Catholicism in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin’s death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254(Sony VGN-FS745P/H Battery).

Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by a power struggle between the Šubi? and Kotromani? families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stephen II Kotromani? became Ban. By the time of his death in 1353, he was successful in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia(Sony VGN-FS742/W Battery). He was succeeded by his nephew Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. Tvrtko crowned himself on 26 October 1377 as Stephen Tvrtko I the King of Rascia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia, the Seaside.

Based on archaeological evidence, he was crowned in the in Mile near Visoko in the church which was built in the time of Stephen II Kotromani?’s reign(Sony VGN-FS740/W Battery), where he was also buried alongside his uncle Stjepan II.[21][22] Following his death in 1391 however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had already started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, the Kingdom of Bosnia ceased to exist in 1463(Sony VGN-FS630/W Battery).

[edit]Ottoman Era (1463–1878)

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1463–1878)

The Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 17th century.

The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in the country’s history and introduced drastic changes in the political and cultural landscape. The Ottomans allowed for the preservation of Bosnia’s identity by incorporating it as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity — a unique case among subjugated states in the Balkans(Sony VGN-FS52B Battery).[23]

Within Bosnia the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory’s socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and a complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation(Sony VGN-FS32B Battery).[15]

The three centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia’s population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire’s conquests, frequent wars with European powers, forced and economic migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became the largest of the ethno-religious groups due to the restriction imposed by the Ottoman Empire(Sony VGN-FS285M Battery),[16] and conversions-for-gain.

The Bosnian Christian communities also experienced major changes. The Bosnian Franciscans (and the Catholic population as a whole) were to a minor extent protected by official imperial decree, while the Bosnian Church disappeared altogether.[15]

As the Ottoman Empire continued their rule in the Balkans (Rumelia) (Sony VGN-FS285H Battery), Bosnia was somewhat relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province, and experienced a period of general welfare. A number of cities, such as Sarajevo and Mostar, were established and grew into regional centers of trade and urban culture and were then visited by Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi in 1648. Within these cities(Sony VGN-FS285E Battery), various Ottoman Sultans financed the construction of many works of Bosnian architecture such as the country’s first library in Sarajevo, madrassas, a school of Sufi philosophy, and a clock tower (Sahat Kula), bridges such as the Stari Most, the Tsar’s Mosque and the Gazi Husrev-beg’s Mosque(Sony VGN-FS285B Battery).

Furthermore, some Bosnians played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire’s cultural and political history during this time.[23] Bosnian recruits formed a large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of Mohács and Krbava field, while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire(Sony VGN-FS22VB Battery), including admirals such as Matrakç? Nasuh; generals such as Isa-Beg Isakovi?, Gazi Husrev-beg and Telli Hasan Pasha; administrators such as Ferhat-paša Sokolovi? and Osman Gradaš?evi?; and Grand Viziers such as the influential Mehmed Paša Sokolovi?. Some Bosnians emerged as Sufi mystics, scholars such as Ali Džabi?; and poets in the Turkish, Albanian, Arabic, and Persian languages(Sony VGN-FS22B Battery).[16]

However, by the late 17th century the Empire’s military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the conclusion of the Great Turkish War with the treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 once again made Bosnia the Empire’s westernmost province. The following century was marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia(Sony VGN-FS215Z Battery), and several outbursts of plague. The Porte’s false efforts at modernizing the Ottoman state were met with distrust growing to hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposed reforms.

This, combined with frustrations over political concessions to nascent Christian states in the east(Sony VGN-FS215S Battery), culminated in an unsuccessful revolt by Husein Gradaš?evi?, in 1831 after the Turkish Sultan Mahmud II slaughtered and abolished the Janissary.[16] Related rebellions would be extinguished by 1850, but the situation continued to deteriorate. Later agrarian unrest eventually sparked the Herzegovinian rebellion, a widespread peasant uprising(Sony VGN-FS215M Battery), in 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, a situation which eventually led to the Congress of Berlin and the Treaty of Berlin in 1878.[15]

[edit]Austro-Hungarian rule (1878–1918)

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1878–1918)

A Catholic from Central Bosnia (1901).

At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy obtained the occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and he also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar(Sony VGN-FS215E Battery), which remained under Ottoman administration. The Sanjak preserved the separation of Serbia and Montenegro, and the Austro-Hungarian garrisons there would open the way for a dash to Salonika that “would bring the western half of the Balkans under permanent Austrian influence.”[24] “High [Austro-Hungarian] military authorities desired(Sony VGN-FS215B Battery) [an...] immediate major expedition with Salonika as its objective.”[25]

On 28 September 1878 the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, threatened to resign if the army, backed by the Archduke Albert, were allowed to advance to Salonika. In the session of the Hungarian Parliament of 5 November 1878 the Opposition proposed that the Foreign Minister should be impeached for violating the constitution with his policy during the Near East Crisis and by the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina(Sony VGN-FS20 Battery). The motion lost 179 to 95. The gravest accusations were raised by the opposition rank and file against Andrassy.[25]

Although an Austro-Hungarian side quickly came to an agreement with Bosnians, tensions remained in certain parts of the country (particularly the south) and a mass emigration of predominantly Slavic dissidents occurred(Sony VGN-FS115S Battery).[15] However, a state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms which intended to make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a “model colony”.

With the aim of establishing the province as a stable political model that would help dissipate rising South Slav nationalism, Habsburg rule did much to codify laws, to introduce new political practices, and to provide for modernisation(Sony VGNE92B/B Battery). The Austro-Hungarian Empire built the three Roman Catholic churches in Sarajevo and these three churches are among only 20 Catholic churches in the state of Bosnia.

Within three years of formal occupation of Bosnia Herzegovina, Austria-Hungary, in 1881, obtained German, and more importantly, Russian, approval for the annexation of these provinces, at a time which suited Vienna. This mandate was formally ratified by the Dreikaiserbund (Three Emperor’s Treaty) on June 18 of that year(Sony VGN-E91B/B Battery).[26] Upon the accession of Czar Nicholas II, however, the Russians reneged on the agreement, asserting in 1897 the need for special scrutiny of the Bosnian Annexation issue at an unspecified future date.[27]

A plaque commemorating the location of the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria(Sony VGN-E81B/B Battery).

External matters began to affect the Bosnian Protectorate, however, and its relationship with Austria-Hungary. A bloody coup occurred in Serbia, on June 10, 1903, which brought a radical anti-Austrian government into power in Belgrade.[28] Serb attempts to foment agitation followed, advocating a unified South Slavic state(Sony VGN-E72B/S Battery), ruled from Belgrade. This gained little support amongst most of the population of Bosnia Herzegovina, and only found fertile ground with disaffected portions of the Orthodox minority. Also, the revolt in the Ottoman Empire in 1908, raised concerns that the Istanbul government might seek the outright return of Bosnia Herzegovina(Sony VGN-E72B/G Battery). These factors caused the Austrian-Hungarian government to seek a permanent resolution of the Bosnian question, sooner, rather than later.

On July 2, 1908, in response to the pressing of the Austrian-Hungarian claim, the Russian Imperial Foreign Minister Alexander Izvolsky offered to support the Bosnian Annexation in return for Vienna’s support for Russia’s bid for naval access through the Dardanelles Straits into the Mediterranean(Sony VGN-E72B/D Battery).[29] With the Russians being, at least, provisionally willing to keep their word over Bosnia Herzegovina for the first time in 11 years, Austria-Hungary waited and then published the annexation proclamation on October 6, 1908. The international furor over the annexation announcement caused Izvolsky to drop the Dardanelles Straits question(Sony VGN-E71B/S Battery), altogether, in an effort to obtain a European conference over the Bosnian Annexation.[30] This conference never materialized and without British or French support, the Russians and their client state, Serbia, were compelled to accept the Austrian-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia Herzegovina in March 1909(Sony VGN-E71B/G Battery).

Political tensions culminated on 28 June 1914, when Serb nationalist youth Gavrilo Princip, a member of the fascist Serb movement, Young Bosnia, assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo – an event that proved to be the spark that set off World War I. Although some Bosnians died serving in the armies of the various warring states(Sony VGN-E70B/S Battery), Bosnia and Herzegovina itself managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed.[23]

[edit]Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–1941)

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1918–1941)

Following the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina joined the South Slav kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over property redistribution(Sony VGN-E70B/B Battery), and formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions.[23] The dominant ideological conflict of the Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia’s major ethnic groups and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere(Sony VGN-E51B/S Battery).[15] The political reforms brought about in the newly established Yugoslavian kingdom saw few benefits for the Bosniaks; according to the 1910 final census of land ownership and population according to religious affiliation conducted in Austro-Hungary, Muslims (Bosniaks) owned 91.1%, Orthodox Serbians owned 6.0%, Croatian Catholics owned 2.6% and others(Sony VGN-E51B/D Battery), 0.3% of the property. Following the reforms Bosnian Muslims had a total of 1,175,305 hectares of agricultural and forest land taken away from them.[31]

Although the initial split of the country into 33 oblasts erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians such as Mehmed Spaho ensured that the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to the six sanjaks from Ottoman times and(Sony VGN-E50B/S Battery), thus, matched the country’s traditional boundary as a whole.[15]

The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates or banovinas that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity.[15] Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration(Sony VGN-E50B/D Battery).

The famous Cvetkovi?-Ma?ek Agreement that created the Croatian banate in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia.[16] However the rising threat of Adolf Hitler’s Nazi Germany forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement(Sony VGN-E50B/B Battery), the signing of the Tripartite Treaty, and a coup d’état, Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941.[15]

[edit]World War II (1941–45)

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1941–1945)

The railway bridge over the Neretva river, was destroyed twice during the battle of the Neretva.

Monument commemorating the Battle of Sutjeska in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Once the kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in World War II, all of Bosnia was ceded to the Independent State of Croatia(Sony VGN-CS92XS Battery). The Croat leaders embarked on a campaign of extermination of Serbs, Jews, Roma, communists and large numbers of Josip Broz Tito’s Partisans by setting up a number of death camps.

Many Serbs themselves took up arms and joined the Chetniks; a Serb nationalist movement that conducted operations coordinated with Nazi forces against the partisans(Sony VGN-CS92JS Battery). The Chetniks were also known to persecute and murder non-Serbs and communist sympathizers. They committed many war crimes against Bosnian Muslims in Eastern Bosnia. On October 12, 1941 a group of 108 notable Muslim citizens of Sarajevo signed the Resolution of Sarajevo Muslims by which they condemned the persecution of Serbs organized by Ustaše(Sony VGN-CS92DS Battery), made distinction between Muslims who participated in such persecutions and whole Muslim population, presented informations about the persecutions of Muslims by Serbs and requested security for all citizens of the country, regardless of their identity.[32]

Starting in 1941(Sony VGN-CS91S Battery), Yugoslav communists under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito organized their own multi-ethnic resistance group, the partisans, who fought against both Axis and Chetnik forces. On 29 November 1943 the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia with Tito at its helm held a founding conference in Jajce where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Habsburg borders(Sony VGN-CS91NS Battery).

Military success eventually prompted the Allies to support the Partisans, but Tito declined their offer to help and relied on his own forces instead. All the major military offensives by the antifascist movement of Yugoslavia against Nazis and their local supporters were conducted in Bosnia-Herzegovina and its peoples bore the brunt of fighting(Sony VGN-CS91HS Battery). More than 300,000 people died in Bosnia and Herzegovina in World War II.[33] At the end of the war the establishment of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, with the constitution of 1946, officially made Bosnia and Herzegovina one of six constituent republics in the new state(Sony VGN-CS90S Battery).[15]

[edit]Socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1992)

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1945–1992)

Because of its central geographic position within the Yugoslavian federation, post-war Bosnia was selected as a base for the development of the military defense industry. This contributed to a large concentration of arms and military personnel in Bosnia(Sony VGN-CS90NS Battery); a significant factor in the war that followed the break-up of Yugoslavia in the 1990s.[15] However, Bosnia’s existence within Yugoslavia, for the large part, was peaceful and prosperous. Though considered a political backwater of the federation for much of the 1950s and 1960s, in the 1970s a strong Bosnian political elite arose(Sony VGN-CS39 Battery), fueled in part by Tito’s leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement and Bosnians serving in Yugoslavia’s diplomatic corps.

While working within the communist system, politicians such as Džemal Bijedi?, Branko Mikuli? and Hamdija Pozderac reinforced and protected the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina[34] Their efforts proved key during the turbulent period following Tito’s death in 1980(Sony VGN-CS36TJ/W Battery), and are today considered some of the early steps towards Bosnian independence. However, the republic did not escape the increasingly nationalistic climate of the time. With the fall of the Soviet Union and the start of the break-up of Yugoslavia, the old communist doctrine of tolerance began to lose its potency, creating an opportunity for nationalist elements in the society to spread their influence(Sony VGN-CS36TJ/V Battery).

[edit]Bosnian War for independence (1992–1995)

Main article: Bosnian War

The parliament building in the centre of Sarajevo burns after being hit by tank fire during the siege in 1992.

Sarajevo after the siege in 1995

Detainees in the Manja?a Camp, near Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina. (Photograph provided courtesy of the ICTY)

[[File:Omarska Camp.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Detainees line up at the Omarska Camp, near Prijedor, Bosnia and Herzegovina(Sony VGN-CS36TJ/U Battery). (Photograph provided courtesy of the ICTY) DELTA 2!! [[File:Srebrenica massacre memorial gravestones 2009 1.jpg||thumb|right|220px|Gravestones at the Srebrenica Genocide memorial.]] On 18 November 1990 the first multi-party parliamentary elections were held (with a 2nd round on 25 November), which resulted in a national assembly dominated by three ethnically based parties(Sony VGN-CS36TJ/T Battery), which had formed a loose coalition to oust the communists from power.[35] Croatia and Slovenia’s subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina and its three constituent peoples in an awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation (overwhelmingly favored among Serbs) or seek independence (overwhelmingly favored among Bosniaks and Croats) (Sony VGN-CS36TJ/R Battery).

The Serb members of parliament, consisting mainly of the Serb Democratic Party members, abandoned the central parliament in Sarajevo, and formed the Assembly of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 24 October 1991, which marked the end of the tri-ethnic coalition that governed after the elections in 1990(Sony VGN-CS36TJ/Q Battery). This Assembly established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992, which became Republika Srpska in August 1992.

On 18 November 1991, the party branch in Bosnia and Herzegovina of the ruling party in the Republic of Croatia, the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), proclaimed the existence of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia, as a separate “political, cultural, economic and territorial whole”, on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina(Sony VGN-CS36TJ/P Battery), with Croat Defence Council (HVO) as its military part.[36] The Bosnian government did not recognize it. The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared Herzeg-Bosnia illegal, first on 14 September 1992 and again on 20 January 1994.[37][38]

A declaration of Bosnia and Herzegovina sovereignty on 15 October 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia on 29 February and 1 March 1992 boycotted by the great majority of the Serbs(Sony VGN-CS36TJ/J Battery). The turnout in the independence referendum was 63.4 per cent and 99.7 per cent of voters voted for independence.[39] Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence on 3 March 1992. Following a tense period of escalating tensions the opening shots in the incipient Bosnian conflict were fired when Serb paramilitary forces attacked Bosnian Croat villages around Capljina on 7 March 1992 (Sony VGN-CS36TJ/C Battery)and around Bosanski Brod and Bosniak town Gorazde on 15 March. These minor attacks were followed by much more serious Serb artillery attacks on Neum on 19 March and on Bosanski Brod on 24 March. The killing of a Bosniak civilian, woman (Suada Dilberovi?), on 5 April 1992 by a sniper, while she was demonstrating in Sarajevo against the raising of barricades by Bosnian Serbs(Sony VGN-CS36H/W Battery), is widely regarded as marking the start of warfare between the three major communities.[35]

Secret discussions between Franjo Tu?man and Slobodan Miloševi? on the division of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Serbia and Croatia were held as early as March 1991 known as Kara?or?evo agreement. Following the declaration of independence of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbs attacked different parts of the country(Sony VGN-CS36H/R Battery). The state administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina effectively ceased to function having lost control over the entire territory. The Serbs wanted control and possession of virtually all territories in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as a top priority of their mastermind plan of a “Greater Serbia”(Sony VGN-CS36H/Q Battery).

The Croats and their leader Tu?man also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Croatian. The policies of the Republic of Croatia and its leader Franjo Tu?man towards Bosnia and Herzegovina were never totally transparent and always included Franjo Tu?man’s ultimate aim of expanding Croatia’s borders(Sony VGN-CS36H/P Battery). Bosnian Muslims, the only ethnic group loyal to the Bosnian government, were an easy target, because the Bosnian government forces were poorly equipped and unprepared for the war.[40]

International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina increased diplomatic pressure for the Yugoslav People’s Army (JNA) to withdraw from the republic’s territory which they officially did. However, in fact(Sony VGN-CS36H/C Battery), the Bosnian Serb members of JNA simply changed insignia, formed the Army of Republika Srpska, and continued fighting. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers and various paramilitary forces from Serbia, and receiving extensive humanitarian, logistical and financial support from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia(Sony VGN-CS36H Battery), Republika Srpska’s offensives in 1992 managed to place much of the country under its control.[15]

Initially, the Serb forces attacked the non-Serb civilian population in Eastern Bosnia. Once towns and villages were securely in their hands, the Serb forces – military, police, the paramilitaries and, sometimes, even Serb villagers – applied the same pattern: Bosniak houses and apartments were systematically ransacked or burnt down(Sony VGN-CS36GJ/W Battery), Bosniak civilians were rounded up or captured, and sometimes beaten or killed in the process. 2.2 million refugees were displaced by the end of the war (of all three nationalities).[41]

Men and women were separated, with many of the men detained in the camps. The women and indeed some children, as young as twelve years of age, were kept in various detention centres where they had to live in intolerably unhygienic conditions(Sony VGN-CS33H Battery), where they were mistreated in many ways including being raped repeatedly. Serb soldiers or policemen would come to these detention centres, select one or more women, take them out and rape them.[42]

In June 1992 the focus switched to Novi Travnik and Gornji Vakuf where the Croat Defence Council (HVO) efforts to gain control were resisted. On 18 June 1992 the Bosnian Territorial Defence in Novi Travnik received an ultimatum from the HVO which included demands to abolish existing Bosnia and Herzegovina institutions(Sony VGN-CS320J/W Battery), establish the authority of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia and pledge allegiance to it, subordinate the Territorial Defense to the HVO and expel Muslim refugees, all within 24 hours. The attack was launched on June 19. The elementary school and the Post Office were attacked and damaged(Sony VGN-CS320J/R Battery).[43]

Gornji Vakuf was initially attacked by Croats on 20 June 1992, but the attack failed. The Graz agreement caused deep division inside the Croat community and strengthened the separation group, which led to the conflict with Bosniaks. One of the primary pro-union Croat leaders, Blaž Kraljevi? (leader of the Croatian Defence Forces (HOS) armed group) was killed by HVO soldiers in August 1992(Sony VGN-CS320J/Q Battery), which severely weakened the moderate group who hoped to keep the Bosnian Croat alliance alive.[44]

The situation became more serious in October 1992 when Croat forces attacked the Bosniak population in Prozor. According to Jadranko Prli? indictment, HVO forces cleansed most of the Muslims from the town of Prozor and several surrounding villages(Sony VGN-CS320J/P Battery).[36]

By 1993, when an armed conflict erupted between the predominantly Bosniak government in Sarajevo and the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia, about 70% of the country was controlled by Republika Srpska. Ethnic cleansing and civil rights violations against non-Serbs were rampant in these areas(Sony VGN-CS31Z/Q Battery). DNA teams have been used to collect evidence of the atrocities committed by Serbian forces during these campaigns.[45] One single most prominent example is the Srebrenica Massacre, ruled genocide by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. An estimated 7,000 Bosnians were killed by the Serbian political authorities(Sony VGN-CS31S/W Battery).[46]

In March 1994, the signing of the Washington Accords between the leaders of the republican government and Herzeg-Bosnia led to the creation of a joint Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which absorbed the territory of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia and that held by the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina(Sony VGN-CS31S/V Battery). The Federation soon liberated the small Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia.

A NATO bombing campaign began in August, 1995, against the Army of Republika Srpska, after the Srebrenica massacre. Meanwhile, a ground offensive by the allied forces of Croatia and Bosnia, based on the treaty in Split by Tudjman and Izetbegovi?, pushed the Serbs away from territories held in western Bosnia which paved the way to negotiations(Sony VGN-CS31S/T Battery). In December 1995, the signing of the Dayton Agreement in Dayton, Ohio by the presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Alija Izetbegovi?), Croatia (Franjo Tu?man), and Serbia (Slobodan Miloševi?) brought a halt to the fighting, roughly establishing the basic structure of the present-day state. A NATO-led peacekeeping force was immediately dispatched to Bosnia to enforce the deal(Sony VGN-CS31S/R Battery).

The number of identified victims is currently at 97,207, and the recent research estimates the total number to be less than 110,000 killed (civilians and military),[47][48][49] and 1.8 million displaced. This is being addressed by the International Commission on Missing Persons(Sony VGN-CS31S/P Battery).

According to numerous International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) judgments the conflict involved Bosnia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (later Serbia and Montenegro)[50] as well as Croatia.[51]

The Bosnian government charged Serbia of complicity in genocide in Bosnia during the war at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) (Sony VGN-CS27 Battery). The ICJ ruling of 26 February 2007 effectively determined the war’s nature to be international, though exonerating Serbia of direct responsibility for the genocide committed by Serb forces of Republika Srpska. The ICJ concluded, however, that Serbia failed to prevent genocide committed by Serb forces and failed to punish those who carried out the genocide(Sony VGN-CS26T/W Battery)especially general Ratko Mladi?, and bring them to justice.[52] Ratko Mladi? was arrested in a village in northern Serbia on 26 May 2011, being accused of directly orchestrating and overseeing the slaughter of 8,000 Muslim men and boys, amongst other genocide and war crime charges.[53]

The judges ruled that the criteria for genocide with the specific intent (dolus specialis) to destroy Bosnian Muslims were met only in Srebrenica or Eastern Bosnia in 1995(Sony VGN-CS26T/V Battery).[54] The court concluded that the crimes committed during the 1992–1995 war, may amount to crimes against humanity according to the international law, but that these acts did not, in themselves, constitute genocide.[55] The Court further decided that, following Montenegro’s declaration of independence in June, 2006, Serbia was the only respondent party in the case(Sony VGN-CS26T/T Battery), but that “any responsibility for past events involved at the relevant time the composite State of Serbia and Montenegro”.[56]

[edit]Geography

Main article: Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina

See also: List of mountains in Bosnia and Herzegovina, List of lakes in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and List of rivers of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Topographic map of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Various parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina: The coast of Neum; Igman mountain with the Olympic ski jumping hills covered in snow; and some landscape near Ivan mountain(Sony VGN-CS26T/R Battery).

Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia (932 km/579 mi) to the north and south-west, Serbia (302 km/188 mi) to the east, and Montenegro (225 km/140 mi) to the southeast. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E(Sony VGN-CS26T/Q Battery).

The country’s name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them. Bosnia occupies the northern areas which are roughly four fifths of the entire country, while Herzegovina occupies the rest in the south part of the country(Sony VGN-CS26T/P Battery).

The country is mostly mountainous, encompassing the central Dinaric Alps. The northeastern parts reach into the Pannonian basin, while in the south it borders the Adriatic. Dinaric Alps generally run in east-west direction, and get higher towards the south. The highest point of the country is peak Magli? at 2,386 m, at the Montenegrin border. Major mountains include Kozara(Sony VGN-CS26T/C Battery), Grme?, Vlaši?, ?vrsnica, Prenj, Romanija, Jahorina, Bjelašnica and Treskavica.

Overall, close to 50% of Bosnia and Herzegovina is forested. Most forest areas are in Central, Eastern and Western parts of Bosnia. Herzegovina has drier Mediterranean climate, with dominant karst topography. Northern Bosnia (Posavina) contains very fertile agricultural land along the river Sava and the corresponding area is heavily farmed(Sony VGN-CS26GW Battery). This farmland is a part of the Parapannonian Plain stretching into neighboring Croatia and Serbia. The country has only 20 kilometers (12 mi) of coastline,[8] around the town of Neum in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton. Although the city is surrounded by Croatian peninsulas, by the international law, Bosnia has a right of passage to the outer sea(Sony VGN-CS260DW Battery).

The major cities are the capital Sarajevo, Banja Luka in the northwest region known as Bosanska Krajina, Bijeljina and Tuzla in the northeast, Zenica and Doboj in the central part of Bosnia and Mostar, the capital of Herzegovina.

There are seven major rivers in Bosnia and Herzegovina[57]

The Sava is the largest river of the country, but it only forms its northern natural border with Croatia. It drains 76%[57] of the country’s territory into the Danube and the Black Sea(Sony VGN-CS260DQ Battery). Bosnia and Herzegovina is therefore also a member of the International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR).

The Una, Sana and Vrbas are right tributaries of Sava river. They are located in the northwestern region of Bosanska Krajina.

The Bosna river gave its name to the country, and is the longest river fully contained within it. It stretches through central Bosnia, from its source near Sarajevo to Sava in the north(Sony VGN-CS25H/W Battery).

The Drina flows through the eastern part of Bosnia, and for the most part it forms a natural border with Serbia.

The Neretva is the major river of Herzegovina and the only major river that flows south, into the Adriatic Sea.

Phytogeographically, Bosnia and Herzegovina belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region and Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region(Sony VGN-CS25H/R Battery). According to the WWF, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests.

[edit]Government and politics

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Main articles: Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH), Republika Srpska (RS), and Br?ko District (BD).

Building of the Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo

The Presidency Building in central Sarajevo.

Bosnia and Herzegovina has several levels of political structuring, according to the Dayton accord(Sony VGN-CS25H/P Battery). Most important of these levels is the division of the country into two entities: Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina covers 51% of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s total area, while Republika Srpska covers 49%. The entities, based largely on the territories held by the two warring sides at the time(Sony VGN-CS25H/C Battery), were formally established by the Dayton peace agreement in 1995 because of the tremendous changes in Bosnia and Herzegovina’s ethnic structure. Since 1996 the power of the entities relative to the State government has decreased significantly. Nonetheless, entities still have numerous powers to themselves. The Br?ko District in the north of the country was created in 2000 out of land from both entities(Sony VGN-CS25H Battery). It officially belongs to both, but is governed by neither, and functions under a decentralized system of local government. The Br?ko District has been praised for maintaining a multiethnic population and a level of prosperity significantly above the national average.[58]

The third level of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s political subdivision is manifested in cantons. They are unique to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina entity, which consists of ten of them(Sony VGN-CS23T/W Battery). All of them have their own cantonal government, which is under the law of the Federation as a whole. Some cantons are ethnically mixed and have special laws implemented to ensure the equality of all constituent people.

The fourth level of political division in Bosnia and Herzegovina is the municipalities. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided in 74 municipalities, and Republika Srpska in 63. Municipalities also have their own local government(Sony VGN-CS23T/Q Battery), and are typically based on the most significant city or place in their territory. As such, many municipalities have a long tradition and history with their present boundaries. Some others, however, were only created following the recent war after traditional municipalities were split by the Inter-Entity Boundary Line. Each canton in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of several municipalities, which are divided into local communities(Sony VGN-CS23H/S Battery).

Besides entities, cantons, and municipalities, Bosnia and Herzegovina also has four “official” cities. These are: Banja Luka, Mostar, Sarajevo, and East Sarajevo. The territory and government of the cities of Banja Luka and Mostar corresponds to the municipalities of the same name, while the cities of Sarajevo and East Sarajevo officially consist of several municipalities(Sony VGN-CS23H/B Battery). Cities have their own city government whose power is in between that of the municipalities and cantons (or the entity, in the case of Republika Srpska).

As a result of the Dayton Accords, the civilian peace implementation is supervised by the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina selected by the Peace Implementation Council. The High Representative has many governmental and legislative powers, including the dismissal of elected and non-elected officials(Sony VGN-CS23H Battery) (Sony VGN-CS23G/W Battery). More recently, several central institutions have been established (such as defense ministry, security ministry, state court, indirect taxation service and so on) in the process of transferring part of the jurisdiction from the entities to the state.

The representation of the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina is by elites who represent the country’s three major groups, with each having a guaranteed share of power(Sony VGN-CS23G/Q Battery).

The Chair of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina rotates among three members (Bosniak, Serb, Croat), each elected as the Chair for an eight-month term within their four-year term as a member. The three members of the Presidency are elected directly by the people (Federation votes for the Bosniak/Croat, Republika Srpska for the Serb) (Sony VGN-CS23G/P Battery).

The Chair of the Council of Ministers is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the House of Representatives. He or she is then responsible for appointing a Foreign Minister, Minister of Foreign Trade, and others as appropriate.

The Parliamentary Assembly is the lawmaking body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of two houses: the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives(Sony VGN-CS23G Battery). The House of Peoples has 15 delegates, two-thirds of which come from the Federation (5 Croat and 5 Bosniaks) and one-third from the Republika Srpska (5 Serbs). The House of Representatives is composed of 42 Members, two-thirds elected from the Federation and one-third elected from the Republika Srpska.

The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the supreme(Sony VGN-CS220DW Battery), final arbiter of legal matters. It is composed of nine members: four members are selected by the House of Representatives of the Federation, two by the Assembly of the Republika Srpska, and three by the President of the European Court of Human Rights after consultation with the Presidency(Sony VGN-CS220DT Battery).

However, the highest political authority in the country is the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the chief executive officer for the international civilian presence in the country. Since 1995, the High Representative has been able to bypass the elected parliamentary assembly, and since 1997 has been able to remove elected officials(Sony VGN-CS220DR Battery). The methods selected by the High Representative have been criticized as undemocratic.[59] International supervision is to end when the country is deemed politically and democratically stable and self-sustaining.

[edit]Military

Main article: Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnian soldiers armed with Yugoslavian-made SKS rifles

The Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were unified into a single entity in 2005, with the merger of the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Army of Republika Srpska, which had defended their respective regions. The Ministry of Defense had been founded in 2004(Sony VGN-CS220DQ Battery).

The Bosnian military consists of the Bosnian Ground Forces and Air Force and Air Defense. The Ground Forces number 10,000 active and 5,000 reserve personnel. They are armed with a mix of American, Yugoslavian, Soviet, and European-made weaponry, vehicles, and military equipment. The Air Force and Air Defense Forces has 2,500 personnel and about 45 aircraft(Sony VGN-CS220DP Battery). All of its aircraft are utility helicopters and basic trainers. The Air Defense Forces operate MANPAD hand-held missiles, SAM missile batteries, anti-aircraft cannons, and radar. Almost all of its anti-aircraft equipment is of Soviet origin, though it also operates some U.S. and Swedish hardware(Sony VGN-CS21Z/Q Battery).

[edit]Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Bosnia and Herzegovina

See also: Accession of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the European Union

EU integration is one of the main political objectives of Bosnia and Herzegovina, it initiated the Stabilisation and Association Process in 2007. Countries participating in the SAP have been offered the possibility to become, once they fulfill the necessary conditions(Sony VGN-CS21S/W Battery), Member States of the EU. Bosnia and Herzegovina is therefore a potential candidate country for EU accession.[60] The implementation of the Dayton Accords of 1995 has focused the efforts of policymakers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the international community, on regional stabilization in the countries-successors of the former Yugoslavia(Sony VGN-CS21S/V Battery). Within Bosnia and Herzegovina, relations with its neighbors of Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro have been fairly stable since the signing of the Dayton Agreement in 1995.

On April 23, 2010, Bosnia and Herzegovina received the Membership Action Plan from NATO, which is the last step before full membership in the alliance. Full membership is expected in 2014 or 2015, depending on the progress of reforms(Sony VGN-CS21S/T Battery).

[edit]Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Demographic history of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Further information: Ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and List of people from Bosnia and Herzegovina

Ethnic structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina by settlements in 1991:

A Mosque, an Eastern Orthodox church and a Roman Catholic church in Bosanska Krupa(Sony VGN-CS21S/R Battery)

Bosnia and Herzgovina is home to three ethnic “constituent peoples”: Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats. Tensions between the three constitutional peoples remain high and often provoke political disagreements.

According to the 1991 census, Bosnia and Herzegovina had a population of 4,377,033, while the 1996 UNHCR unofficial census showed a decrease to 3,919,953(Sony VGN-CS21S/P Battery).

Ethnically, according to the last official census data from 1991, 1,902,956 (43.5%) are Bosniaks, 1,366,104 (31.2%) Serbs and 760,852 (17.4%) Croats, with 242,682 (5.5%) Yugoslavs. The remaining 2.4% of the population – numbering 104,439 – consisted of various other ethnicities including, but not limited to, Jews, Romas(Sony VGN-CS19/R Battery), Albanians and Montenegrins. According to the 1996 UNHCR census, 1,805,910 (46.1%) are Bosniaks, 1,484,530 (37.9%) Serbs, 571,317 (14.6%) Croats and 58,196 (1.4%) others and unspecified. According to 2000 data from the CIA World Factbook, Bosnia’s three largest ethnic groups have the following percentages – the Bosniaks (48%), the Serbs (37.1%) and the Croats (14.3%)(Sony VGN-CS19/Q Battery).[2] Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian are official languages but all three are mutually intelligible. There is a strong correlation between ethnic identity and religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Muslims constitute 40% of the population; Serb Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholics 15%, and Protestants 1%; and other groups, including mostly non-religious, 13%(Sony VGN-CS19/P Battery).[61]

Large population migrations during the Yugoslav wars in the 1990s have caused demographic shifts in the country. No census has been taken since 1991/96, and political disagreements have made it impossible to organize one. Nevertheless, a census has been planned for 2012.[62] As almost all of the post-war data is simply an estimate(Sony VGN-CS17H/W Battery), a census would be a statistical, inclusive, and objective way to analyze the demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Most sources, however, estimate the population to be about four million, representing a decrease of 500,000 since 1991.

The last official estimate by BHAS (Agency for Statistics of BiH) for 2011 shows a decrease of the population to 3,839,737.[3] Other BHAS estimation of population done on 30 June 2009 is 3,842,566(Sony VGN-CS17H/Q Battery).[63]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina

See also: List of companies of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Avaz Twist Tower is the headquarters of the newspaper Dnevni avaz

Lake Sani?ani fish farm near Prijedor

Sarajevska Pivara, a Sarajevo brewery

Radon Plaza Business Center

Bosnia faces the dual problem of rebuilding a war-torn country and introducing market reforms to its formerly centrally planned economy. One legacy of the previous era is a greatly overstaffed military industry; under former leader Josip Broz Tito(Sony VGN-CS16T/W Battery), military industries were promoted in the republic, resulting in the development of a large share of Yugoslavia’s defense plants but fewer commercially-viable firms.

For the most of Bosnia’s history, agriculture has been based on small and inefficient privately owned farms; food has traditionally been a net import for the republic.[65]

The war in the 1990s caused a dramatic change in the Bosnian economy(Sony VGN-CS16T/T Battery).[66] GDP fell by 75% and the destruction of physical infrastructure devastated the economy.[67] While much of the production capacity has been restored, the Bosnian economy still faces considerable difficulties. Figures show GDP and per capita income increased 10% from 2003 to 2004; this and Bosnia’s shrinking national debt being positive trends, but high unemployment and a large trade deficit remain cause for concern(Sony VGN-CS16T/R Battery).

The national currency is the (Euro-pegged) Convertible Mark (KM), controlled by the currency board. Annual inflation is the lowest relative to other countries in the region at 1.9% in 2004.[68] The international debt was $3.1 billion (2005 est) – the smallest amount of debt owed of all the former Yugoslav republics. Real GDP growth rate was 5% for 2004 according to the Bosnian Central Bank of BiH and Statistical Office of Bosnia and Herzegovina(Sony VGN-CS16T/Q Battery).

Bosnia and Herzegovina has one of the highest income equality rankings in the world, ranking eighth out of 193 nations.[69]

According to Eurostat data, Bosnia and Herzegovina’s PPS GDP per capita stood at 31 per cent of the EU average in 2010.[70]

Overall value of foreign direct investment (1999–2008):[71]

1999: €166 million

2000: €159 million

2001: €133 million

2002: €282 million

2003: €338 million

2004: €534 million

2005: €421 million

2006: €556 million

2007: €1.628 billion

2008: €1.083 billion

From 1994 to 2008, €5.3 billion were invested in the country.[72]

The top investor countries (1994–2007):[71]

Austria (€1,294 million)

Serbia (€773 million)

Croatia (€434 million)

Slovenia (€427 million)

Switzerland (€337 million)

Germany (€270 million)

Italy (€94.29 million)

Netherlands (€63.52 million)

United Arab Emirates (€56.70 million)

Turkey (€54.81 million)

All Other Countries (€892.54 million)

Foreign investments by sector for (1994–2007):[71]

37.7% Manufacturing

21% Banking

4.9% Services

9.6% Trade

0.30% Transport

1% Tourism(Sony VGN-CS16T/P Battery)

[edit]Communications

Main article: Telecommunications in Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Bosnian communications market was fully liberalised in January 2006. There are three landline telephone providers, although each one predominantly serves a partile services are provided by three operators, with nationwide services. Mobile data services are also available, including high-speed EDGE and 3G services(Sony VGN-CS13T/W Battery).[73]

Oslobo?enje (Liberation), founded in 1943, is one of the country’s longest running continuously circulating newspapers. There are many national publications, only some of which include the Dnevni Avaz (Daily Voice), founded in 1995, and Jutarnje Novine (Morning News) in circulation in Sarajevo(Sony VGN-CS13H/W Battery).[74] Other local periodicals include the Croatian newspaper Hrvatska rije? and the Bosnian magazine Start, as well as the weekly newspapers Slobodna Bosna (Free Bosnia) and BH Dani (BH Days). Novi Plamen, a monthly magazine, is the most left-wing publication currently. The international news station Al Jazeera maintains a sister channel that caters to the Balkans region(Sony VGN-CS13H/R Battery), Al Jazeera Balkans, broadcasting out of and based in Sarajevo.[75]

Additionally, the country is the most liberated in terms of freedom of the press in the region, ranking 43rd internationally.[76]

[edit]Tourism

Various tourist attractions: Sarajevo, the capital and the largest city in Bosnia and Herzegovina; Marian shrine of Me?ugorje; general view of Mostar (with the Stari Most); Trebinje town and river; and the Mehmed Paša Sokolovi? Bridge in Višegrad(Sony VGN-CS13H/Q Battery).

Main article: Tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina

See also: Sites of interest in Sarajevo

According to an estimation of the World Tourism Organization, Bosnia and Herzegovina will have the third highest tourism growth rate in the world between 1995 and 2020.[77]

Lonely Planet, in ranking the best cities in the world, ranked Sarajevo, the national capital and host of the 1984 Winter Olympic Games, as #43, ahead of Dubrovnik at #59, Ljubljana at #84, Bled at #90, Belgrade at #113, and Zagreb at #135(Sony VGN-CS13H/P Battery).[78] Tourism in Sarajevo is chiefly focused on historical, religious, and cultural aspects. Bosnia has also become an increasingly popular skiing and Ecotourism destination.

More recently Sarajevo was nominated one of Top 10 cities to visit in 2010 in the 2010 edition of Lonely Planet’s “Best In Travel”.[79]

Bosnia and Herzegovina remains arguably one of the last undiscovered natural regions of the southern area of the Alps(Sony VGN-CS11Z/T Battery), with vast tracks of wild and untouched nature attracting adventurers and nature lovers. The central Dinaric Alps are favored by hikers and mountaineers, containing both Mediterreanean and Alpine climates. Whitewater rafting is somewhat of a national pastime, with three rivers, including the deepest river canyon in Europe, the Tara River Canyon(Sony VGN-CS11Z/R Battery). [77]

[edit]Tourist attractions

Some of the tourist attractions in Bosnia and Herzegovina include:

Sarajevo The “Olympic City”. Scientific, cultural, tourist and commercial center of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Called the “European Jerusalem”;

Shrine of Our Lady of Me?ugorje (with an Annual Youth Festival), the Catholic pilgrimage site of a famous Marian apparition;

Mostar, “City on Neretva”, “City of Sunshine”, the UNESCO site of Stari most and old town Mostar(Sony VGN-CS11S/W Battery);

Višegrad, the UNESCO site of the Mehmed Paša Sokolovi? Bridge;

Banja Luka, the “Green City” with various cultural sights like Kastel fortress and Ferhadija mosque;

Biha? and the river Una with its waterfalls and the Una River, within Una National Park;

Jajce, historical city of the Bosnian Kings, also famous for being the city that hosted the foundation of Yugoslavia and its famous waterfalls(Sony VGN-CS11S/Q Battery);

Prijedor, Old City Mosque (National heritage), Kozara National Park and Bosnia’s largest World War II monument at Mrakovica;

Tuzla Birthplace of Meša Selimovi? and the “salt lakes” of Tuzla;

The Neretva river and the Rakitnica river canyons in Upper Neretva;

The Trebižat river and its waterfalls Kravice and Ko?uša;

The Buna and its spring Vrelo Bune with the historical town of Blagaj;

The Lower Tara river canyon, the deepest canyon in Europe;

The Peru?ica ancient forest, one of the last two remaining primeval forests in Europ(Sony VGN-CS11S/P Battery)e, and the Sutjeska river canyon, both within Sutjeska National Park;

Po?itelj historical village;

Mount Bjelašnica and Jahorina, sites of the XIV Olympic Winter Games;

Neum on the coast. City on the Adriatic shore of Bosnia-Herzegovina;

Doboj and its 13th century fortress;

Stolac, the Begovina neighborhood and Radimlja tombstones;

Visoko, city of Bosnian Kings and the site of the alleged Bosnian pyramids;

Tešanj, one of the oldest cities in Bosnia with its old town;

Bijeljina, known for its agriculture and ethno village Staniši?HP Presario dv6000T Battery;

Lukavac – Modrac Lake (Jezero Modrac) the largest artificial lake in Bosnia and Herzegovina;

Travnik – The birthplace of Ivo Andri? and site of old town Travnik, once the historical capital city of the Kingdom of Bosnia;

Ostrožac Castle – 16th century castle built by the Ottomans and a second addition added by the Habsburg familiyHP Presario B1200 Battery;

Gornji Vakuf – Mountain Vranica & Kula Mehmed bega Sto?anina.

[edit]Education

Faculty of Law, University of Sarajevo

Main article: Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Higher education has a long and rich tradition in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the first classifiable higher-education institution having been established a school of Sufi philosophy by Gazi Husrev-beg in 1531, with numerous other religious schools following suit over time. In 1887, under the Austro-Hungarian EmpireHP Pavilion ZX5200 Battery, a Sharia Law School began a five-year program.[80] In the 1940s the University of Sarajevo became the city’s first secular higher education institute. In the 1950s post-bachelaurate graduate degrees became available.[81] Severely damaged during the war, it was recently rebuilt in partnership with more than 40 other universitiesHP Pavilion ZX5000 Battery. There are various other institutions of higher education, including: University “Džemal Bijedi?” of Mostar, University of Banja Luka, University of Mostar, University of Tuzla, American University in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is held in high regard as one of the most prestigious creative arts academies in the regionHP Pavilion ZV6000 Battery.

Also, Bosnia and Herzegovina is home to several private and international higher education institutions, some of which are:

Sarajevo School of Science and Technology

International University of Sarajevo

American University in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Sarajevo Graduate School of Business

International Burch University

Primary schooling lasts for nine years. Secondary education is provided by general and technical secondary schools (typically Gymnasiums where studies typically last for four years. All forms of secondary schooling include an element of vocational trainingHP Pavilion ZV5200 Battery. Pupils graduating from general secondary schools obtain the Matura and can enroll in any tertiary educational institution or academy by passing a qualification examination prescribed by the governing body or institution. Students graduating technical subjects obtain a DiplomaHP Pavilion ZV5000 Battery.[82]

[edit]Culture

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010)

National and University Library of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Statues for Meša Selimovi? (left) and Ismet Mujezinovi? in Tuzla

Main article: Culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina

[edit]ArchitectureHP Pavilion ZT1290 Battery

Main article: Architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina is largely influenced by four major periods where political and social changes influenced the creation of distinct cultural and architectural habits of the population. Each period made its influence felt and contributed to a greater diversity of cultures and architectural language in this regionHP Pavilion ZT1271 Battery.

[edit]Literature

Main article: Literature of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina has a rich literature, including a Nobel prize winner Ivo Andri? and poets such as Antun Branko Šimi?, Aleksa Šanti?, Jovan Du?i? and Mak Dizdar, writers such as Meša Selimovi?, Semezdin Mehmedinovi?, Miljenko Jergovi?, Isak Samokovlija, Abdulah Sidran, Petar Ko?i?, Aleksandar HemonHP Pavilion ZT1270 Battery, and Nedžad Ibrišimovi?. The National Theater was founded 1919 in Sarajevo and its first director was famous drama-play writer Branislav Nuši?. Magazines such as Novi Plamen, Most and Sarajevske biljeznice are some of the more prominent publications covering cultural and literary themesHP Pavilion ZT1261 Battery.

Besides native Bosnian literature there are many books which cover the nineties Bosnian conflict written by international authors. A few books worthy of mention are:

Slaughterhouse: Bosnia and the Failure of the West by David Rieff

Love Thy Neighbor: A Story of War by Peter Maass

Safe Area Gorazde: The War in Eastern Bosnia 1992–1995 by Joe Sacco, and Christopher HitchensHP Pavilion ZT1260 Battery

The Balkans: Nationalism, War & the Great Powers, 1804–1999 by Misha Glenny

Zlata’s Diary: A Child’s Life in Wartime Sarajevo, by Zlata Filipovi?

and in novels:

From Bosnia with Love by Javed Mohammed, S: A novel about the Balkans by Slavenka Drakuli?.

[edit]Art

Main article: Art of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Ste?ak from Radimlja near Stolac, 13th century

The art of Bosnia and Herzegovina was always evolving and ranged from the original medieval tombstones called Ste?ci to paintings in Kotromani? courtHP Pavilion ZT1250 Battery. However, only with the arrival of Austro-Hungarians did the painting renaissance in Bosnia really begin to flourish. The first educated artists from European academies appeared with the beginning of 20th century. Among those are: Gabrijel Jurki?, Petar Tiješi?, Karlo Miji?, Špiro Bocari?, Petar Šain, ?oko Mazali?, Roman Petrovi? and Lazar Drlja?aHP Pavilion ZT1243 Battery. Later, artists such as: Ismet Mujezinovi?, Vojo Dimitrijevi?, Ivo Šeremet, and Mica Todorovi? amongst others came to rise. After World War II artists like: Virgilije Nevjesti?, Bekir Misirli?, Ljubo Lah, Meho Sefi?, Franjo Likar, Mersad Berber, Ibrahim Ljubovi?, Dževad Hozo, Afan Rami?, Safet Zec, Ismar Mujezinovi? and Mehmed Zaimovi? rose in popularityHP Pavilion ZT1235 Battery. In 2007, Ars Aevi, a museum of contemporary art that includes works by renowned world artists was founded in Sarajevo.

[edit]Music

Main article: Music of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Vedran Smailovi?, the cellist of Sarajevo.

Typical Bosnian and Herzegovinian songs are ganga, rera, and the traditional slavic music for the folk dances such as kolo and from Ottoman era the most popular is sevdalinka. Pop and Rock music has a tradition here as wellHP Pavilion ZT1233 Battery, with the more famous musicians including Dino Zoni?, Goran Bregovi?, Davorin Popovi?, Kemal Monteno, Zdravko ?oli?, Edo Maajka,Hari Varesanovic and Dino Merlin. Very popular are also the numerous Slavic Metal bands, performing an interesting combination of upbeat tempos and traiditional tunesHP Pavilion ZT1231S Battery. Among them Silent Kingdom, Emir Hot, D’n'K, Toxicdeath, Agonize and Irina Kapetanovi?, often performing with folk metal musicians from other neighbouring slavic countries like Stribog (Croatia), Svarica (Croatia/Bosnia) and Arkona (Russia). Also, it would be unfair not to mention some of the talented composers such as ?or?e Novkovi?, Esad Arnautali?HP Pavilion ZT1231 Battery, Kornelije Kova?, and many pop and rock bands, for example, Bijelo Dugme, Indexi, Plavi Orkestar, Zabranjeno Pušenje, who were among the leading ones in the former Yugoslavia. Bosnia is home to the composer Dušan Šesti?, the creator of the current national anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina and father of singer Marija Šesti?HP Pavilion ZT1230 Battery, composer Saša Loši? and pianist Sasha Toperich. In the villages, especially in Herzegovina, Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats play the ancient Gusle. The gusle is used mainly to recite epic poems in a usually dramatic tone.

[edit]Cinema

Main article: List of Bosnia-Herzegovina films

Notable Bosnian film-makers are Hajrudin Krvavac-Šiba, Emir Kusturica (known for the Palme d’Or-winning 1985 film When Father Was Away on Business, among others) HP Pavilion ZT1213 Battery, Mirza Idrizovi?, Aleksandar Jev?evi?, Ivica Mati?, Danis Tanovi? (known for the Academy Award– and Golden Globe–winning 2001 film No Man’s Land), Ademir Kenovi?, Benjamin Filipovi?, Jasmin Dizdar, Pjer Žalica, Jasmila Žbani?, Dino Mustafi?, Sr?an Vuleti?, Aida Begi?, among many othersHP Pavilion ZT1211S Battery.

[edit]Sports

Bosnia and Herzegovina has produced many athletes. Many of them were famous in the Yugoslav national teams before Bosnia and Herzegovina’s independence.

The most important international sporting event in the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina was the hosting of the 14th Winter Olympics, held in Sarajevo from the 7th to 19 February 1984. Some notable local Olympians wereHP Pavilion ZT1211 Battery:

Rome, 1960: Tomislav Knez and Velimir Sombolac (football),

Tokyo, 1964: Mirsad Fazlagi? (football),

Munich, 1972: Abaz Arslanagi?, Milorad Karali?, Nebojša Popovi?, ?or?e Lavrini?, Dobrivoje Sele? (handball)

Moscow, 1980: Mirza Delibaši? and Ratko Radovanovi? (basketball)

Los Angeles, 1984: Zdravko Ra?enovi?, Zlatan Arnautovi? (handball) and Anton Josipovi? (boxing).

The Borac handball club has won seven Yugoslav Handball Championships, as well as the European Championship Cup in 1976 and the International Handball Federation Cup in 1991HP Pavilion ZT1210 Battery.

The Bosna basketball club from Sarajevo were European Champions in 1979. The Yugoslav national basketball team, which medaled in every world championship from 1963 through 1990, included Bosnian players such as Dražen Dalipagi? and Mirza Delibaši?. Bosnia and Herzegovina regularly qualifies for the European Championship in BasketballHP Pavilion ZT1201 Battery. Jedinstvo Aida women’s basketball club, based in Tuzla, has won the 1989 European Championships in Florence.

The Tuzla-Sinalco karate club from Tuzla has won the most Yugoslav championships, as well as four European Championships and one World Championship.

The Bosnian chess team has been Champion of Yugoslavia seven times, in addition to club ŠK Bosna Sarajevo winning four Chess Club CupHP Pavilion ZT1200 Battery : 1994 in Lyon, 1999 in Bugojno, 2000 in Neum, and 2001 in Kallithea Elassonos. Chess grandmaster Borki Predojevi? has also won two European Championships: Under-12 years Litochoro (Greece) in 1999, and Under-14 years Kallithea Elassonos (Greece) in 2001, and in 2003 won World Championship Under-16 years Halkidiki (Greece)HP Pavilion ZT1195 Battery. The most impressive success of Bosnian Chess was his runner-up position in Men´s Olympiads of 1994 in Moscow, featuring Grandmasters Predrag Nikoli?, Ivan Sokolov, Bojan Kurajica and Emir Dizdarevi?.

Middle-weight boxer Marijan Beneš has won several Championships of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Yugoslav Championships and the European Championship.[83] In 1978 he won the World Title against Elisha Obed from the BahamasHP Pavilion ZT1192 Battery. Another middle-weight boxer, Anton Josipovi? won the Olympic Gold in Los Angeles, 1984. He also won Yugoslav Championship in 1982, the Championship of the Balkans in 1983, and the Belgrade Trophy in 1985.

Association football is the most popular sport in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It dates from 1903, but its popularity grew significantly after World War I. At the local level, FK Sarajevo (1967 and 1984), Željezni?ar (1972) have both won the Yugoslav ChampionshipHP Pavilion ZT1190 Battery. The former Yugoslav national football team has included a number of Bosnian players, such as Josip Katalinski, Dušan Bajevi?, Miroslav Blaževi?, Ivica Osim, Safet Suši?, Idriz Hoši? and Mirsad Fazlagi?.

Today, the team of Bosnia and Herzegovina has modern footballers like Edin Džeko, Zvjezdan Misimovi?, Vedad Ibiševi?, Emir Spahi?HP Pavilion ZT1185 Battery, Asmir Begovi?, Miralem Pjani?, Sejad Salihovi? and others. The independent Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team has not qualified for a European or World Championship but has played twice in the play-off stages. For all time matches: Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team results (1995-2011) HP Pavilion ZT1182 Battery.

Bosnian national teams have struggled to draft the best national players. Many players born in Bosnia and Herzegovina choose to play for other countries because of their ethnic identification and because of higher salaries offered by other teams. For example Mario Stani? and Mile Miti? were both born in Bosnia and HerzegovinaHP Pavilion ZT1180 Battery, but play for Croatia and Serbia respectively. Other internationally famous players from Bosnia and Herzegovina, who have made similar choices, are: Darijo Srna, Mladen Petri?, Neven Suboti?, Vedran ?orluka, Zlatan Ibrahimovi? (born and raised in Sweden, his mother a Croat, his father a Bosnian), Marko Marin, Zoran Savi?HP Pavilion ZT1175 Battery, Vladimir Radmanovi?, Zlatko Junuzovi?, Aleksandar Nikoli?, Savo Miloševi?, and Zdravko Kuzmanovi?.

Bosnia and Herzegovina was the world champion of volleyball at the 2004 Summer Paralympics. Many among those on the team lost their legs in the Bosnian War.

[edit]Cuisine

Main article: Bosnia and Herzegovina cuisine

?evap?i?i in somun.

Bosnian cuisine uses many spices, in moderate quantities. Most dishes are light, as they are cooked in lots of water; the sauces are fully naturalHP Pavilion ZT1172 Battery, consisting of little more than the natural juices of the vegetables in the dish. Typical ingredients include tomatoes, potatoes, onions, garlic, peppers, cucumbers, carrots, cabbage, mushrooms, spinach, zucchini, dried beans, fresh beans, plums, milk, paprika and cream called Pavlaka. Bosnian cuisine is balanced between Western and Eastern influencesHP Pavilion ZT1171 Battery. As a result of the Ottoman administration for almost 500 years, Bosnian food is closely related to Turkish, Greek, and other former Ottoman and Mediterranean cuisines. However, because of years of Austrian rule, there are many influences from Central Europe. Typical meat dishes include primarily beef and lamb. Some local specialties are ?evapi, burekHP Pavilion ZT1170 Battery, dolma, sarma, pilaf, goulash, ajvar and a whole range of Eastern sweets. Local wines come from Herzegovina where the climate is suitable for growing grapes. Herzegovinian loza (similar to Italian Grappa but less sweet) is very popular. Plum (rakija) or apple (jabukova?a) alcohol beverages are produced in the north. In the southHP Pavilion ZT1162 Battery, distilleries used to produce vast quantities of brandy and supply all of ex-Yugoslavian alcohol factories (brandy is the base of most alcoholic drinks).

[edit]Leisure activities

Coffeehouses, where Bosnian coffee is served in džezva with rahat lokum and sugar cubes, proliferate Sarajevo and every city in the country. Coffee drinking is a favorite Bosnian pastime and part of the culture. Bosnians are believed to be some of the heaviest coffee drinkers in the worldHP Pavilion ZT1161 Battery.

The Latvians are a Baltic people, culturally related to the Lithuanians. Together with the Finno-Ugric Livs (or Livonians), the Latvians are the indigenous people of Latvia.[8] Latvian is an Indo-European language and along with Lithuanian the only two surviving members of the Baltic branch. Indigenous minority languages are Latgalian and the nearly extinct Finno-Ugric Livonian languageHP Pavilion dv6-1102tu battery. In terms of geography, territory and population Latvia is the middle of three Baltic states: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Latvia and Estonia share a long common history: historical Livonia, times of German (Teutonic Order), Polish-Lithuanian, Swedish, Russian, Nazi German and Soviet ruleHP Pavilion dv6-1102ax battery, 13th century Christianization and 16th century Protestant Reformation. Both countries are home to a large number of ethnic Russians (26.9% in Latvia[2] and 25.5% in Estonia[9]) of whom some are non-citizens. Latvia is historically predominantly Protestant, except for the region of Latgalia in the southeast which is historically predominantly Roman CatholicHP Pavilion dv6-1102au battery.

Latvia is a unitary parliamentary republic and is divided into 118 administrative divisions of which 109 municipalities and 9 cities. There are five planning regions: Courland (Kurzeme), Latgalia (Latgale), Riga (R?ga), Vidzeme and Zemgale. The Republic of Latvia was founded on November 18, 1918HP Pavilion dv6-1101tx battery. It was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union between 1940–1941 and 1945–1991 and by Nazi Germany between 1941–1945. The peaceful “Singing Revolution” between 1987 and 1991 and “Baltic Chain” demonstration on August 23, 1989 led to the independence of the Baltic states. Latvia declared the restoration of its de facto independence on August 21, 1991HP Pavilion dv6-1101tu battery.

Latvia is a member of the United Nations, European Union, Council of Europe, NATO, OSCE, IMF and WTO, and is part of the Schengen Area. It was a member of the League of Nations (1921–1946) and the Baltic Free Trade Area (1994–2004). Latvia is also a member of the Council of the Baltic Sea States[10] and Nordic Investment BankHP Pavilion dv6-1101so battery, and is together with Estonia and Lithuania involved in trilateral Baltic States cooperation[11] and Nordic-Baltic cooperation.[12][13]

After economic stagnation in the early 1990s, Latvia posted Europe-leading GDP growth figures during 1998–2006. In the global financial crisis of 2008–2010 Latvia was the hardest hit of the European Union member states, with a GDP decline of 26.54% in that periodHP Pavilion dv6-1101ax battery. Commentators noted signs of stabilisation in the Latvian economy by 2010, and the state of the economy continued to improve, as Latvia once again became one of the fastest growing economies of the EU in 2011.[16][17] The United Nations lists Latvia as a country with a Human Development Index (HDI) of “Very High”.HP Pavilion dv6-1101au battery

Etymology

The name Latvija comes from the ancient Latgallians, one of four Indo-European Baltic tribes, who along with Couronians, Selonians and Semigallians formed the ethnic core of today’s Latvian people.[18]

[edit]History

Around the beginning of the third millennium BC (3000 BC), the proto-Baltic ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic SeaHP Pavilion dv6-1100sv battery.[19] The Balts established trade routes to Rome and Byzantium, trading local amber for precious metals.[20] By 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia: Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians[citation needed] (in Latvian: kurši, latga?i, s??i and zemga?i), as well as the Livonians (l?bieši) speaking a Finnic languageHP Pavilion dv6-1100ss battery.

[edit]The Medieval period

Although the local people had had contact with the outside world for centuries, they were more fully integrated into European society in the 12th century.[21] The first missionaries, sent by the Pope, sailed up the Daugava River in the late 12th century, seeking converts.[22] The local people, however, did not convert to Christianity as readily as hopedHP Pavilion dv6-1100so battery.[22] German crusaders were sent into Latvia to convert the pagan population by force of arms.[23]

In the beginning of the 13th century, large parts of today’s Latvia were ruled by Germans.[22] Together with Southern Estonia, these conquered areas formed the crusader state that became known as Terra Mariana or Livonia. In 1282, Riga, and later the cities of C?sis, LimbažiHP Pavilion dv6-1100es battery, Koknese and Valmiera, were included in the Hanseatic League.[22] Riga became an important point of east-west trading[22] and formed close cultural contacts with Western Europe[citation needed].

[edit]The Reformation period

The 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries were a time of great change for the inhabitants of Latvia, including the reformation, the collapse of the Livonian state, and the time when the Latvian territory was divided up among foreign powersHP Pavilion dv6-1100eo battery.

After the Livonian War (1558–1583), Livonia (Latvia) fell under Polish and Lithuanian rule.[22] The southern part of Estonia and the northern part of Latvia were ceded to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and formed into the Ducatus Ultradunensis (P?rdaugavas hercogiste). Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Order of LivoniaHP Pavilion dv6-1099ef battery, formed the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia[citation needed]. Though the duchy was a vassal state to Poland, it retained a considerable degree of autonomy and experienced a golden age in the 17th century. Latgalia, the easternmost region of Latvia, became a part of the Polish district of InflantyHP Pavilion dv6-1090es battery.

The 17th and early 18th centuries saw a struggle between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, and Russia for supremacy in the eastern Baltic. After the Polish–Swedish War (1600–1611), northern Livonia (including Vidzeme) came under Swedish rule. Fighting continued sporadically between Sweden and Poland until the Truce of Altmark in 1629HP Pavilion dv6-1090eo battery. In Latvia, the Swedish period is generally remembered as positive; serfdom was eased, a network of schools was established for the peasantry, and the power of the regional barons was diminished.[24][25]

Several important cultural changes occurred during this time. Under Swedish and largely German rule, western Latvia adopted Lutheranism as its main religion. The ancient tribes of the Couronians, SemigalliansHP Pavilion dv6-1080es battery, Selonians, Livs and northern Latgallians assimilated to form the Latvian people, speaking one Latvian language. Throughout all the centuries, however, no such thing as a Latvian state existed so the borders and definitions of who exactly fell within that group are largely subjective. Meanwhile, largely isolated from the rest of LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1080eq battery, southern Latgallians adopted Catholicism under Polish/Jesuit influence. The native dialect remained distinct, although it acquired many Polish and Russian loanwords.[26]

[edit]Latvia in the Russian Empire

The Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 and the Treaty of Nystad, ending the Great Northern War in 1721, gave Vidzeme to Russia (it became part of the Riga Governorate)[citation needed] HP Pavilion dv6-1080el battery. The Latgale region remained part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as Inflanty Voivodeship until 1772, when it was incorporated into Russia. The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia became an autonomous Russian province (the Courland Governorate) in 1795, bringing all of what is now Latvia into the Russian EmpireHP Pavilion dv6-1070eo battery. All three Baltic provinces preserved local laws, the local official language and their own parliament, the Landtag[citation needed].

During the Great Northern War (1700–1721), the Baltic area was once again the scene of great devastation, with Peter the Great’s scorched-earth policy, famine, and plague being responsible for catastrophic loss of human life: as much as 40% of the population in Latvian lands were killed. HP Pavilion dv6-1068el batteryIn 1710, the plague reached Riga, where it was active until 1711 and claimed the lives of about half the population.[28]

The promises Peter the Great made to the Baltic German nobility at the fall of Riga in 1710, confirmed by the Treaty of Nystad and known as “the Capitulations”, largely reversed the Swedish reformsHP Pavilion dv6-1066el battery.

The emancipation of the serfs took place in Courland in 1817 and in Vidzeme in 1819[citation needed]. In practice, however, the emancipation was actually advantageous to the landowners and nobility[citation needed], as it dispossessed peasants of their land without compensation, forcing them to return to work at the estates “of their own free will”HP Pavilion dv6-1062el battery.

During the 19th century, the social structure changed dramatically[citation needed]. A class of independent farmers established itself after reforms allowed the peasants to repurchase their land, but many landless peasants remained[citation needed]. There also developed a growing urban proletariat and an increasingly influential Latvian bourgeoisieHP Pavilion dv6-1060ev battery. The Young Latvian (Latvian: Jaunlatvieši) movement laid the groundwork for nationalism from the middle of the century, many of its leaders looking to the Slavophiles for support against the prevailing German-dominated social order[citation needed]. The rise in use of the Latvian language in literature and society became known as the First National AwakeningHP Pavilion dv6-1060es battery. Russification began in Latgale after the Polish led the January Uprising in 1863: this spread to the rest of what is now Latvia by the 1880s[citation needed]. The Young Latvians were largely eclipsed by the New Current, a broad leftist social and political movement, in the 1890s. Popular discontent exploded in the 1905 Russian Revolution, which took a nationalist character in the Baltic provincesHP Pavilion dv6-1060eo battery.

[edit]Declaration of Independence

“Poland & The New Baltic States” map from a British atlas in 1920, showing still-undefined borders after the treaties of Brest and Versailles and before the Peace of Riga.

K?rlis Ulmanis

World War I devastated the territory of what would become the state of Latvia, along with other western parts of the Russian Empire. Demands for self-determination were at first confined to autonomyHP Pavilion dv6-1060el battery, but the Russian 1917 Revolution, treaty with Germany at Brest-Litovsk, and allied armistice with Germany on November 11, 1918, created a power vacuum. The People’s Council of Latvia proclaimed the independence of the new country in Riga on November 18, 1918, with K?rlis Ulmanis becoming the head of the provisional governmentHP Pavilion dv6-1058el battery.

The War of Independence that followed was part of a general chaotic period of civil and new border wars in Eastern Europe. By the spring of 1919, there were actually three governments — Ulmanis’ government; the Soviet Latvian government led by P?teris Stu?ka, whose forces, supported by the Red ArmyHP Pavilion dv6-1056el battery, occupied almost all of the country; and the Baltic German government of the United Baltic Duchy, headed by Andrievs Niedra and supported by the Baltische Landeswehr and the German Freikorps unit Iron Division.

Estonian and Latvian forces[citation needed] defeated the Germans at the Battle of Wenden in June 1919, and a massive attack by a predominantly German force — the West Russian Volunteer ArmyHP Pavilion dv6-1055ee battery — under Pavel Bermondt-Avalov was repelled in November. Eastern Latvia was cleared of Red Army forces by Latvian and Polish troops in early 1920 (from the Polish perspective the Battle of Daugavpils was a part of the Polish-Soviet War)[citation needed].

A freely elected Constituent assembly convened on May 1, 1920, and adopted a liberal constitution, the Satversme, in February 1922HP Pavilion dv6-1053cl battery.[29] The constitution was partly suspended by K?rlis Ulmanis after his coup in 1934, but reaffirmed in 1990. Since then, it has been amended and is still in effect in Latvia today. With most of Latvia’s industrial base evacuated to the interior of Russia in 1915, radical land reform was the central political question for the young state. In 1897, 61.2% of the rural population had been landlessHP Pavilion dv6-1050us battery; by 1936, that percentage had been reduced to 18%.[30]

By 1923, the extent of cultivated land surpassed the pre-war level. Innovation and rising productivity led to rapid growth of the economy, but it soon suffered from the effects of the Great Depression. Latvia showed signs of economic recovery and the electorate had steadily moved toward the centre during the parliamentary periodHP Pavilion dv6-1050et battery. On May 15, 1934, Ulmanis staged a bloodless coup, establishing a nationalist dictatorship that lasted until 1940.[31] After 1934, Ulmanis established government corporations to buy up private firms with the aim of “Latvianising” the economy.[32]

[edit]Latvia in World War II

See also: Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940, Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany, The Holocaust in Latvia, Latvian partisans, and Latvian resistance movementHP Pavilion dv6-1050ep battery

“TWO WORLDS”: Anti-Sovietism propaganda board, Latvia, Summer, 1941.

Early in the morning of August 24, 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed a 10-year non-aggression pact, called the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The pact contained a secret protocol, revealed only after Germany’s defeat in 1945HP Pavilion dv6-1050eo battery, according to which the states of Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into German and Soviet “spheres of influence”.[33] In the North, Latvia, Finland and Estonia were assigned to the Soviet sphere.[33] Thereafter, Germany and the Soviet union invaded their respective portions of PolandHP Pavilion dv6-1050en battery.

After the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, most of the Baltic Germans left Latvia by agreement between Ulmanis’ government and Nazi Germany under the Heim ins Reich program.[34] In total 50,000 Baltic Germans left by the deadline of December 1939, with 1,600 remaining to conclude business and 13,000 choosing to remain in LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1050ei battery.[34] Most of those who remained left for Germany in summer 1940, when a second resettlement[citation needed] scheme was agreed.[35]

On 5 October 1939, Latvia was forced to accept a “mutual assistance” pact with the Soviet Union, granting the Soviets the right to station between 25,000 and 30,000 troops on Latvian territory.[36] After staging border incidents, on 16 June 1940 the government of the USSR handed the Latvian ambassador in Moscow a noteHP Pavilion dv6-1050ef battery, in which Latvia was accused of breaching the articles of the agreement of 5 October 1939, and demands were made for sending in additional Soviet troops and to change the government. The Latvian government capitulated in the face of overwhelming force. On 17 June Soviet troops invaded Latvian territory. In his address by radioHP Pavilion dv6-1046el battery, K?rlis Ulmanis, announced: “Soviet forces are marching into our land this very morning. This is happening with the knowledge and consent of the government, which in turn stems from the amicable relations that exist between Latvia and the Soviet Union. It is, therefore, my wish that the residents of our country also show friendship towards the advancing military unitsHP Pavilion dv6-1045ez battery … The government has resigned. I shall remain in my place, you remain in yours”. No opposition was shown towards the Soviet forces; on the contrary, part of the population accepted the news of their arrival with enthusiasm, which was heavily exploited by Soviet propaganda. Observing them, the well known Russian lawyer and public figure of LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1045eo battery, Pyotr Yakobi, wrote: “Taken from the German model, the authoritarian beginning in our country has turned into a government of national bureaucracy, having satisfied a limited circle of citizens, who have adapted themselves to the state pie. Clearly, any hardship is not in vainHP Pavilion dv6-1045ei battery. And so now the down-trodden have raised their voice and demand a return of their rights that have been trampled on … “. Among those unhappy with the regime of K?rlis Ulmanis were not only the national minorities but also many Latvians who were anxious about the deteriorating economic situation and who had no desire to end up under the rule of Nazi GermanyHP Pavilion dv6-1045ee battery.

The mass killings of 2,749 Jews on the beach near the city of Liep?ja, December 1941.

State administrators were liquidated and replaced by Soviet cadres,[37] in which 34,250 Latvians were deported or killed.[38] Elections were held with single pro-Soviet candidates listed for many positionsHP Pavilion dv6-1044el battery; the resulting people’s assembly immediately requested admission into the USSR, which was granted by the Soviet Union.[37] Latvia, then a puppet government, was headed by Augusts Kirhenšteins.[39] Latvia was incorporated into the Soviet Union on August 5, 1940 as The Latvian Soviet Socialist RepublicHP Pavilion dv6-1042el battery.

The Soviets dealt harshly with their opponents – prior to the German invasion, in the course of less than a year, at least 27,586 persons were arrested; most were deported for cooperation with the German army[citation needed], and about 945 persons were shot[citation needed]. While under German occupationHP Pavilion dv6-1040ez battery, Latvia was administered as part of Reichskommissariat Ostland. Latvian paramilitary and Auxiliary Police units established by the occupation authority participated in the Holocaust as well.[31] More than 200,000 Latvian citizens died during World War II, including approximately 75,000 Latvian Jews murdered during the Nazi occupationHP Pavilion dv6-1040ev battery.[31] Latvian soldiers fought on both sides of the conflict, including in the Latvian Legion of the Waffen-SS, most of them conscripted by the occupying Nazi and Soviet authorities.

[edit]Soviet era

Main articles: Occupation of Latvia by Soviet Union 1944–1945, Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic, and Stalinism

In 1944 when the Soviet military advances reached the area heavy fighting took place in Latvia between German and Soviet troops which ended with another German defeatHP Pavilion dv6-1040el battery. During the course of the war, both occupying forces conscripted Latvians into their armies, in this way increasing the loss of the nation’s “live resources”. In 1944, part of the Latvian territory once more came under Soviet control. The Soviets immediately began to reinstate the Soviet system. After the German surrender it became clear that Soviet forces were there to stayHP Pavilion dv6-1040ek battery, and Latvian national partisans, soon to be joined by German collaborators, began their fight against another occupier – the Soviet Union.[40]

File:Shack from Gulag — Museum of the Occupation of Latvia.JPG

Reconstruction of shack from Gulag in museum

Anywhere from 120,000 to as many as 300,000 Latvians took refuge from the Soviet army by fleeing to Germany and Sweden.[41] Most sources count 200,000 to 250,000 refugees leaving LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1040ei battery, with perhaps as many as 80,000 to 100,000 of them recaptured by the Soviets or, during few months immediately after the end of war,[42] returned by the West.[43] The Soviets reoccupied the country in 1944–1945, and further deportations followed as the country was collectivised and SovieticisedHP Pavilion dv6-1040ed battery.[31]

On March 25, 1949, 43,000 rural residents (“kulaks”) and Latvian patriots (“nationalists”) were deported to Siberia in a sweeping Operation Priboi in all three Baltic states, which was carefully planned and approved in Moscow already on January 29, 1949.[44] Between 136,000 and 190,000 Latvians, depending on the sources, were imprisonedHP Pavilion dv6-1040eb battery, repressed or deported to Soviet concentration camps (the Gulag) in the post war years, from 1945 to 1952.[45] Some managed to escape arrest and joined the partisans[citation needed].

In the post-war period, Latvia was driven to adopt Soviet farming methods. Rural areas were forced into collectivisation.[46] An extensive programme to impose bilingualism was initiated in LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1038ca battery, limiting the use of Latvian language in official uses in favor of using Russian as the main language. All of the minority schools (Jewish, Polish, Belorussian, Estonian, Lithuanian) were closed down leaving only two media of instructions in the schools: Latvian and Russian.[47] An influx of labourers, administrators, military personnel and their dependents from Russia and other Soviet republics startedHP Pavilion dv6-1030us battery. By 1959 about 400,000 persons arrived from other Soviet republics and the ethnic Latvian population had fallen to 62%.[48]

Because Latvia had still maintained a well-developed infrastructure and educated specialists it was decided in Moscow that some of the Soviet Union’s most advanced manufacturing factories were to be based in Latvia. New industry was created in Latvia, including a major machinery factory RAF in JelgavaHP Pavilion dv6-1030eq battery, electrotechnical factories in Riga, chemical factories in Daugavpils, Valmiera and Olaine, as well as some food and oil processing plants.[49] However, there were not enough people to operate the newly built factories[citation needed]. In order to expand industrial production, skilled workers were transferred into the republic from all over the Soviet UnionHP Pavilion dv6-1030eo battery, decreasing the proportion of ethnic Latvians in the republic.[50]

[edit]Restoration of independence

Barricade in Riga to prevent the Soviet Army from reaching the Latvian Parliament, July 1991.

In the second half of 1980s Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev started to introduce political and economic reforms in the Soviet Union, called glasnost and Perestroika. In the summer of 1987 the first large demonstrations were held in Riga at the Freedom Monument- a symbol of independenceHP Pavilion dv6-1030em battery. In the summer of 1988 a national movement, coalescing in the Popular Front of Latvia, was opposed by the Interfront. The Latvian SSR, along with the other Baltic Republics was allowed greater autonomy, and in 1988 the old pre-war Flag of Latvia was allowed to be used, replacing the Soviet Latvian flag as the official flag in 1990HP Pavilion dv6-1030ef battery.

In 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a resolution on the “Occupation of the Baltic states”, in which it declared that the occupation was “not in accordance with law,” and not the “will of the Soviet people”. Pro-independence Popular Front of Latvia candidates gained a two-thirds majority in the Supreme Council in the March 1990 democratic electionsHP Pavilion dv6-1030ed battery. On May 4, 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the Latvian SSR adopted the Declaration On the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia, Latvian SSR was renamed Republic of Latvia.

However, the central power in Moscow continued to regard Latvia as Soviet republic in 1990–1991[citation needed]. In January 1991HP Pavilion dv6-1030ec battery, Soviet political and military forces tried unsuccessfully to overthrow the Republic of Latvia authorities by occupying the central publishing house in Riga and establishing a Committee of National Salvation to usurp governmental functions[citation needed]. During the transitional period Moscow maintained many central Soviet state authorities in LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1030ca battery.

In spite of this, 73% of all Latvian residents confirmed their strong support for independence on March 3, 1991, in a nonbinding advisory referendum[citation needed]. A large number of ethnic Russians also voted for the proposition[citation needed]. The Popular Front of Latvia had advocated that all permanent residents be eligible for Latvian citizenshipHP Pavilion dv6-1027ef battery. However, universal citizenship for all permanent residents was not adopted subsequently; majority of ethnical non-latvians did not receive Latvian citizenship even thought they had voted for support of independence. Many of them were born in Latvia, but still became non-citizens. Until 2011 more than half of non-citizens have gone thought process of naturalization exams and received Latvian citizenship. HP Pavilion dv6-1025ez battery) Still today there are 290,660 non-citizens of Latvia, which represent 14.1% of population. Those people have no citizenship of any country and cannot vote in Latvia. The Republic of Latvia declared the end of the transitional period and restored full independence on August 21, 1991 in the aftermath of the failed Soviet coup attemptHP Pavilion dv6-1025ei battery.[3]

Latvia became a member of the European Union in 2004 and signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007.

The Saeima, Latvia’s parliament, was again elected in 1993, and Russia completed its military withdrawal in 1994. The major goals of Latvia in the 1990s, to join NATO and the European Union, were achieved in 2004HP Pavilion dv6-1025ef battery.

Language and citizenship laws have been opposed by many Russophones. (Citizenship was not automatically extended to former Soviet citizens who settled during the Soviet occupation or to their subsequent offspring. This resulted in a situation where people who have lived and worked in Latvia for over 50 years were nonetheless unable to voteHP Pavilion dv6-1023em battery, which meant that Russian voice was largely excluded from the parliament and the government.[citation needed] Children born to non-nationals after the reestablishment of independence are automatically entitled to citizenship.) Approximately 72% of Latvian citizens are Latvian, while 20% are Russian; less than 1% of non-citizens are Latvian, while 71% are Russian.[51] The government denationalised private property confiscated by the Soviet ruleHP Pavilion dv6-1023ef battery, returning it or compensating the owners for it, and privatised most state-owned industries, reintroducing the prewar currency. Albeit having experienced a difficult transition to a liberal economy and its re-orientation toward Western Europe, its economy had one of the highest growth rates until the 2008–2010 Latvian financial crisis. HP Pavilion dv6-1022el battery

[edit]Geography

Main article: Geography of Latvia

Map of Latvia before the administrative territorial reform of 2009.

Latvia lies mostly between latitudes 55° and 58° N (a small area is north of 58°), and longitudes 21° and 29° E (a small area is west of 21°).

Located on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, Latvia lies on the East European Plain. However, its vegetation is very different from the rest of the plain and shares many similarities with the boreal biomeHP Pavilion dv6-1020et battery. It consists of fertile, low-lying plains, largely covered by forest, mostly pines, the highest point being the Gaizi?kalns at 311.6 m (1,022 ft).

Phytogeographically, Latvia is shared between the Central European and Northern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Latvia belongs to the ecoregion of Sarmatic mixed forestsHP Pavilion dv6-1020eg battery. The major rivers include the Daugava River, the Lielupe, the Gauja, the Venta, and the Salaca. An inlet of the Baltic Sea, the shallow Gulf of Riga is situated in the northwest of the country. Latvia’s coastline extends for 531 kilometres.

[edit]Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Latvia

See also: List of cities in Latvia, Planning regions of Latvia, and Historical regions of LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1020el battery

Since 2009 Latvia has one-level municipalities – 9 republican cities (Latvian: republikas pils?tas) (Daugavpils, J?kabpils, Jelgava, J?rmala, Liep?ja, R?zekne, Riga, Valmiera, Ventspils) and 110 municipalities (Latvian: novadi). There are four historical and cultural regions in Latvia – Courland, Latgalia, Vidzeme, Zemgale. Their borders usually are not explicit definite and in several sources may varyHP Pavilion dv6-1020ek battery. To promote balanced development of all regions, in 2009 five planning regions of Latvia (Latvian: pl?nošanas re?ioni) were created:

Climate

The Latvian climate is humid, continental and temperate owing to the maritime influence of the Baltic Sea. Summers are warm, and the weather in spring and autumn is fairly mild; however, the winters can be extreme due to the northern location. Precipitation is common throughout the year with the heaviest rainfall in JulyHP Pavilion dv6-1020ei battery. During severe spells of winter weather, Latvia is dominated by cold winds from the interior of Russia, and severe snowfalls are very common.

[edit]Biodiversity

View from atop the tower of Gaizinkalns

Common species of wildlife in Latvia include deer, wild boar, moose, lynx, bear, fox, beaver and wolves.[52] Non-marine molluscs of Latvia include 159 species.

Latvia’s national trees are oak (Quercus robur), Latvian: ozols, and linden (Tilia cordata), Latvian: liepa. Oaks and Lindens are considered the national trees of LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1020ed battery. The oak and the linden tree are characteristic elements of the Latvian landscape. Both trees are still widely used for medical purposes. Medicinal infusions are made of linden blossoms as well as oak bark. Latvian dainas (folk songs) often reflect ethical and moral concepts of earlier times. Amongst other trees, these folk songs most often mention the oak and linden treeHP Pavilion dv6-1020ec batterHP Pavilion dv6-1018el battery. In traditional Latvian folk beliefs and folklore the linden tree is looked upon as a female symbol, but the oak – a male symbol. The nation’s reverence for these trees, which in earlier times were considered sacred, can be witnessed, for example, in a landscape where, in the middle of a cultivated field there still remains a lone large, sacred oak or linden treeHP Pavilion dv6-1001et battery.

The White Wagtail is the national bird of Latvia

Latvia’s national bird is the White Wagtail (Motacilla alba), Latvian: balt? cielava. This slender and graceful bird is found in Latvia from April till October. The White Wagtail can usually be seen running briskly along the ground, wagging its tail up and down. This bird typically nests in the rafters and eaves of buildings, woodpilesHP Pavilion dv6-1001tx battery, stone piles, and birdhouses. During the winter it migrates to Southern Europe and North Africa. The White Wagtail was affirmed the national bird of Latvia in 1960 by the International Bird Protection Council.

Latvia’s national flower is the oxeye daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare also known as Chrysanthemum leucanthemum), Latvian: p?pene.[53] In Latvian conditions, the common or wild daisy blossoms from June till SeptemberHP Pavilion dv6-1001xx battery. Daisies are a very popular flower and are often used in flower arrangements or given as gifts.

Latvia’s national insect is the Two-spot ladybird (Adalia bipunctata), Latvian: m?r?te. The two-spot ladybird is familiar as a useful insect that protects plants from parasites. Although rather slow by nature, it can defend itself wellHP Pavilion dv6-1002tx battery. Due to its appearance and behaviour it is widely known and liked throughout Latvia. The insect’s Latvian name – marite – is a synonym for the ancient Latvian goddess Mara, who embodies the power of the earth. The two-spot ladybird was designated the national insect of Latvia by the Entomological Society of LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1003tx battery.

[edit]Politics

Main articles: Politics of Latvia, Parliament of Latvia, and Government of Latvia

The 100-seat unicameral Latvian parliament, the Saeima, is elected by direct popular vote every four years. The president is elected by the Saeima in a separate election, also held every four years. The president appoints a prime minister who, together with his cabinet, forms the executive branch of the governmentHP Pavilion dv6-1004tx battery, which has to receive a confidence vote by the Saeima. This system also existed before World War II.[54] Highest civil servants are sixteen Secretaries of State.

[edit]Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Latvia

Latvia has a representation in the European parliament since 2004.

Membership in the EU and NATO were major policy goals during the 1990s. In a nation-wide referendum on September 20, 2003, 66.9% of those taking part voted in favour of joining the European Union. Latvia became a member of the European Union on May 1, 2004. Latvia has been a NATO member since March 29, 2004HP Pavilion dv6-1005ea battery.

The Treaty delimiting the boundary with Russia was signed and ratified in 2007. Under the treaty the Abrene district passed to Russia; talks over maritime boundary disputes with Lithuania are ongoing (the primary concern is oil exploration rights).

[edit]Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Latvia

Human rights in Latvia are generally respected by the government, according to Freedom House and US Department of State.HP Pavilion dv6-1005ez battery Latvia is ranked above-average among the world’s sovereign states in democracy,[57] press freedom,[58] privacy [59] and human development.[60] The country has a large ethnic Russian community, which was guaranteed basic rights under the constitution and international human rights laws ratified by the Latvian government. HP Pavilion dv6-1005tx battery

However, human rights organisations have reported multiple problems. Especially non-citizens – including stateless persons – suffer from limited or no access to a broad range of rights, according to UN and Council of Europe bodies.[62][63] Also there were problems with police abuse of detainees and arresteesHP Pavilion dv6-1006tx battery, poor prison conditions and overcrowding, judicial corruption, discrimination against women, incidents of violence against ethnic minorities, and societal violence and incidents of government discrimination against homosexuals.

Naval Forces patrol boat P-03 „Linga”

[edit]Military

Main article: Military of Latvia

Latvia’s defence concept is based upon the Swedish-Finnish model of a rapid response force composed of a mobilization base and a small group of career professionals. The armed forces consist of mobile riflemen, an air force, and a navyHP Pavilion dv6-1007tx battery. Latvia cooperates with Estonia and Lithuania in the joint infantry battalion BALTBAT and naval squadron BALTRON which are available for peacekeeping operations.

As of March 29, 2004, Latvia officially joined NATO. Currently, NATO is involved in the patrolling and protection of the Latvian air space as the Latvian army does not have the means to do so effectively. For this goal a rotating force of four NATO fightersHP Pavilion dv6-1008tx battery, which comes from different nations and switches at two or three month intervals, is based in Lithuania to cover all three Baltic states (see Baltic Air Policing).

[edit]Economy

Main article: Economy of Latvia

Latvia is a member of the World Trade Organization (1999) and the European Union (2004).

Since the year 2000 Latvia has had one of the highest (GDP) growth rates in Europe.[66] However, the chiefly consumption-driven growth in Latvia resulted in the collapse of the Latvian GDP in late 2008 and early 2009, exacerbated by the global economic crisis and shortage of creditHP Pavilion dv6-1009el battery. Latvian economy fell 18% in the first three months of 2009, the biggest fall in the European Union.[67][68] According to Eurostat data, Latvian PPS GDP per capita stood at 56 per cent of the EU average in 2008.[69]

Real GDP growth in Latvia 1996–2006.

This latest scenario has proven the earlier assumptions that the fast growing economy was heading for implosion of the economic bubble, because it was driven mainly by growth of domestic consumptionHP Pavilion dv6-1009tx battery, financed by a serious increase of private debt, as well as a negative foreign trade balance. The prices of real estate, which were at some points appreciating at approximately 5% a month, were long perceived to be too high for the economy, which mainly produces low-value goods and raw materialsHP Pavilion dv6-1010ea battery.

Latvia plans to introduce the Euro as the country’s currency but, due to the inflation being above EMU’s guidelines, the government’s official target is now January 1, 2014.[70][71]

Latvia is part of the Schengen Area and the EU single market.

Privatization in Latvia is almost complete. Virtually all of the previously state-owned small and medium companies have been successfully privatizedHP Pavilion dv6-1010ed battery, leaving only a small number of politically sensitive large state companies. Latvian privatization efforts have led to the development of a dynamic and prosperous private sector, which accounted for nearly 68% of GDP in 2000.

Foreign investment in Latvia is still modest compared with the levels in north-central Europe. A law expanding the scope for selling land, including to foreigners, was passed in 1997HP Pavilion dv6-1010et battery. Representing 10.2% of Latvia’s total foreign direct investment, American companies invested $127 million in 1999. In the same year, the United States exported $58.2 million of goods and services to Latvia and imported $87.9 million. Eager to join Western economic institutions like the World Trade Organization, OECD, and the European UnionHP Pavilion dv6-1010tx battery, Latvia signed a Europe Agreement with the EU in 1995—with a 4-year transition period. Latvia and the United States have signed treaties on investment, trade, and intellectual property protection and avoidance of double taxation.

[edit]Economic contraction

Main article: 2008–2010 Latvian financial crisis

Riga Airport terminal

The Latvian economy entered a phase of fiscal contraction during the second half of 2008 after an extended period of credit-based speculation and unrealistic appreciation in real estate valuesHP Pavilion dv6-1011tx battery. The national account deficit for 2007, for example, represented more than 22% of the GDP for the year while inflation was running at 10%.[7]

Latvia’s unemployment rate rose sharply in this period from a low of 5.4% in November 2007 to over 22%.[72] In April 2010 Latvia had the highest unemployment rate in the EU, at 22.5%, ahead of Spain which had 19.7%HP Pavilion dv6-1012tx battery.[73]

Paul Krugman, the Nobel Laureate in economics for 2008, wrote in his New York Times Op-Ed column for December 15, 2008:

“The most acute problems are on Europe’s periphery, where many smaller economies are experiencing crises strongly reminiscent of past crises in Latin America and Asia: Latvia is the new Argentina ” HP Pavilion dv6-1013ea battery

However by 2010 commentators[75][76] noted signs of stabilisation in the Latvian economy. Rating agency Standard & Poor’s raised its outlook on Latvia’s debt from negative to stable.[75] Latvia’s current account, which had been in deficit by 27% in late 2006 was in surplus in February 2010.[75] Kenneth Orchard, senior analyst at Moody’s investors service argued thatHP Pavilion dv6-1013tx battery:

“The strengthening regional economy is supporting Latvian production and exports, while the sharp swing in the current account balance suggests that the country’s ‘internal devaluation’ is working.” [77]

The IMF however warned that tax revenues were likely to be eroded due to price and wage decreases continuing until 2012,[76] adding thatHP Pavilion dv6-1016ez battery:

Air Baltic Boeing 757–200

“The sharp economic downturn is starting to bottom out, but recovery has not yet begun and sizable risks remain.”[76]

[edit]Infrastructure

Main articles: Transportation in Latvia and National Roads in Latvia

The transport sector is around 14% of GDP. Transit between Russia and the West is large.[78]

Key ports are in Riga, Ventspils, and Liep?ja. Most transit traffic uses these and half the cargo is crude oil and oil products. HP Pavilion dv6-6091nr battery

Riga International Airport is the largest airport with 4.7 million passengers in 2010.

AirBaltic is the Latvian flag carrier airline and a low-cost carrier.

Latvia has 3 big hydroelectric power stations (P?avi?u HES (825MW), R?gas HES (402 MW), ?eguma HES-2 (192 MW).

Latvia also has an underground gas station, which is the 3rd largest underground gas station in Europe and the only underground gas station in the Baltic States. (In?ukalns underground gas station) HP Pavilion dv6-6090us battery

[edit]Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Latvia

Residents of Latvia by ethnicity[1]

Population of Latvia (in millions) from 1950–2012.

[edit]Ethnic groups

Main articles: Latvian people, Latvian Russians, Latvian Germans, Latvian Jews, Latgalians (modern), and Livonians

Latvia’s population has been multiethnic for centuries, though the demographics shifted dramatically in the 20th century due to the World Wars, the emigration and removal of Baltic Germans, the Holocaust, and occupation by the Soviet UnionHP Pavilion dv6-6090sf battery. According to the Russian Empire Census of 1897, Latvians formed 68.3% of the total population of 1.93 million; Russians accounted for 12%, Jews for 7.4%, Germans for 6.2%, and Poles for 3.4%.[79]

As of March 2011, Latvians and Livonians, the indigenous peoples of Latvia, form about 62.1% of the population; 26.9% of the inhabitants are Russians, Belarusians 3.3%, Ukrainians 2.2%, Poles 2.2%, Lithuanians 1.2%HP Pavilion dv6-6087eg battery, Jews 0.3%, Roma people 0.3%, Germans 0.1%, Estonians 0.1% and others 1.3%. There were 290,660 non-citizens living in Latvia or 14.1% of Latvian residents, mainly ethnic Russians who arrived after the occupation of 1940 and their descendants.[80]

In some large cities, e.g. Riga, Daugavpils and R?zekne, Russians and other minorities outnumber Latvians. Minorities from other countries such as BelarusHP Pavilion dv6-6063sf battery, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania, etc., also live in Latvia. The share of ethnic Latvians had fallen from 77% (1,467,035) in 1935 to 52% (1,387,757) in 1989.[81] In 2011 there were even fewer Latvians than in 1989, though their share of the population was larger — 1,284,194 (62.1% of the population) HP Pavilion dv6-6054sf battery.

[edit]Language

Further information: Language policy in Latvia

The sole official language of Latvia is Latvian, which belongs to the Baltic language group of the Indo-European language family. Another notable language of Latvia is the nearly extinct Livonian language of the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family, which enjoys protection by law; Latgalian —HP Pavilion dv6-6054ef batteryreferred as either dialect or distinct separate language of Latvian — is also formally protected by Latvian law but only as a historical variation of the Latvian language. Russian, which was widely spoken during the Soviet period, is by far the most widely used minority language, and is understood by virtually all Latvians who started their education during the period of Soviet ruleHP Pavilion dv6-6051xx battery. Despite this the Russian language is not protected by Latvian law. While it is now required that all school students learn Latvian, most schools also include English and either German or Russian in their curricula. The English language is widely accepted in Latvia especially in business and tourismHP Pavilion dv6-6051sf battery.

On 18 February 2012, Latvia hold a referendum on whether to adopt Russian as a second official language.[82] With over 93 percent of ballots counted, 75 percent of voters said they were against Russian as a national language, according to the Central Election Commission results. HP Pavilion dv6-6042sf battery

[edit]Religion

Main article: Religion in Latvia

Riga Cathedral

The largest religion in Latvia is Christianity,[7] though only about 7% of the population attends religious services regularly.[84] The largest groups as of 2006 were:

Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia – 450,000[85]

Roman Catholic – 430,000[85]

Orthodox – 350,000[85]

In the Eurobarometer Poll 2005,[86] 37% of Latvian citizens responded that “they believe there is a god”, while 49% answered that “they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force” and 10% stated that “they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force”HP Pavilion dv6-6029tx battery.

Lutheranism was much stronger before the Soviet annexation, when it was a majority religion. Since then, Lutheranism has declined to a much greater extent than Roman Catholicism in all three Baltic states. The Evangelical Lutheran Church, with an estimated 600,000 members in 1956, was affected most adverselyHP Pavilion dv6-6027tx battery. An internal document of March 18, 1987, near the end of communist rule, spoke of an active membership that had shrunk to only 25,000 in Latvia, but the faith has since experienced a revival.[87] The country’s Orthodox Christians belong to the Latvian Orthodox Church, a semi-autonomous body within the Russian Orthodox Church. In 2011, there were 9,571 Jews and 182 Muslims living in LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-6026tx battery.

There are more than 600 Latvian neopagans, Dievturi (The Godskeepers), whose religion is based on Latvian mythology.[88] About 40% of the total population is not affiliated with a specific religion.[citation needed]

[edit]Education

Main article: Education in Latvia

See also: List of universities in Latvia

University of Latvia

Riga Technical University and University of Latvia are two major universities in the country, both been established on the basis of Riga Polytechnical Institute and located in RigaHP Pavilion dv6-6025tx battery.[89] Another two important universities, which were established on the base of State University of Latvia, are Latvia University of Agriculture (established in 1939 on the basis of the Faculty of Agriculture) and Riga Stradi?š University (established in 1950 on the basis of the Faculty of Medicine) – both nowadays covers a variety of different fieldsHP Pavilion dv6-6024tx battery. Daugavpils University is another significant center of education. Latvia closed 131 schools between 2006 and 2010, which is a 12.9% decline, and in the same period enrollment in educational institutions has fallen by over 54,000 people, a 10.3% declineHP Pavilion dv6-6023tx battery.[90]

[edit]Health

The Latvian healthcare system is a universal program, largely funded through government taxation.[91] It is among the lowest-ranked healthcare systems in Europe, due to excessive waiting times for treatment, insufficient access to the latest medicines, and other factors.[92] There were 59 hospitals in Latvia in 2009, down from 94 in 2007HP Pavilion dv6-6022eg battery, and 121 in 2006.[93][94][95] The average life expectancy at birth is 72.7 years, second lowest in the European Union.[96]

Corruption is relatively widespread in the Latvian healthcare system, though the situation has improved since the early 1990s. It has been noted that an environment conducive to corruption has been promulgated by low salaries and poorly implemented systemic reforms. HP Pavilion dv6-6013tu battery [97] This also results in brain drain, mostly to Western EU nations.

As of 2007, there were approximately 10,000 inhabitants of Latvia living with HIV/AIDS.[7] There were 32,376 (1.44%) individual instances of clinically reported alcoholism in Latvia in 2008, as well as cases of addictions to other substances.[98] The annual number of births per 1,000 adolescent women aged 15 to 19 has declined from 49.9 in 1990 to 17.9 in 2007HP Pavilion dv6-6013cl battery.[99] In 2005, Latvia had a suicide rate of 24.5 per 100,000 inhabitants (down from 40.7 in 1995), the 7th highest in the world.[100]

[edit]Culture

Main article: Culture of Latvia

Latvian country scenery in Sabile

Traditional Latvian folklore, especially the dance of the folk songs, date back well over a thousand years. More than 1.2 million texts and 30,000 melodies of folk songs have been identifiedHP Pavilion dv6-6012tu battery.[101]

Between the 13th and 19th century, Baltic Germans, many of whom were originally of non-German ancestry but had been assimilated into German culture, formed the upper class.[citation needed] They developed distinct cultural heritage, characterised by both Latvian and German influences. It has survived in German Baltic families to this dayHP Pavilion dv6-6011tu battery, in spite of their dispersal to Germany, the USA, Canada and other countries in the early 20th century. However, most indigenous Latvians did not participate in this particular cultural life.[citation needed] Thus, the mostly peasant local pagan heritage was preserved, partly merging with Christian traditions, for example in one of the most popular celebrations today which is J??iHP Pavilion dv6-6008tx battery, a pagan celebration of the summer solstice, celebrated on the feast day of St. John the Baptist.

In the 19th century Latvian nationalist movements emerged promoting Latvian culture and encouraging Latvians to take part in cultural activities. The 19th century and beginning of the 20th century is often regarded as a classical era of Latvian culture. Posters show the influence of other European culturesHP Pavilion dv6-6008sa battery, for example, works of artists such as the Baltic-German artist Bernhard Borchert and the French Raoul Dufy.[citation needed] With the onset of World War II, many Latvian artists and other members of the cultural elite fled the country yet continued to produce their work, largely for a Latvian émigré audienceHP Pavilion dv6-6008eg battery.[102]

After incorporation into the Soviet Union, Latvian artists and writers were forced to follow the Socialist realism style of art. During the Soviet era, music became increasingly popular, with the most popular being songs from the 1980s. At this time, songs often made fun of the characteristics of Soviet life and were concerned about preserving Latvian identityHP Pavilion dv6-6007tx battery. This aroused popular protests against the USSR and also gave rise to an increasing popularity of poetry. Since independence, theatre, scenography, choir music and classical music have become the most notable branches of Latvian culture.[citation needed]

[edit]Cuisine

Main article: Latvian cuisine

Caraway cheese is traditionally served on the Latvian festival J??i.

Latvian cuisine typically consists of agricultural products, with meat featuring in most main meal dishesHP Pavilion dv6-6007sg battery. Fish is commonly consumed due to Latvia’s location on the Baltic Sea. Latvian cuisine has been influenced by the neighbouring countries. Common ingredients in Latvian recipes are found locally, such as potatoes, wheat, barley, cabbage, onions, eggs and pork. Latvian food is generally quite fatty, and uses few spicesHP Pavilion dv6-6006ea battery.

Grey peas and ham are generally considered as staple foods of Latvians. Sorrel soup is also consumed by Latvians.[103] Rupjmaize is a dark bread made from rye, considered the national staple.

[edit]Sports

Main article: Sport in Latvia

Arena Riga

Ice hockey is the most[citation needed] popular sport. Latvia has many famous hockey stars like Helmut Balderis, Art?rs Irbe, K?rlis Skrasti?š, Sandis Ozoli?šHP Pavilion dv6-6005sg battery. The most famous and most supported Latvian ice hockey club is Dinamo Riga. The 2006 IIHF World Championship was held in Latvia. Second most popular sport is basketball. The best known Latvian player is Andris Biedri?š who plays in NBA. Other popular sports include floorball, soccer, tennis, cycling and bobsleighHP Pavilion dv6-6005eg battery. The Latvia national football team participated in 2004 UEFA Euro for the first time. Latvia has participated in Winter and Summer Olympics.

Throughout history, Malta’s location has given it great strategic importance,[13] and a succession of powers including the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Normans, Aragonese, Habsburg Spain, Knights of St John, French and the British ruled the islands. Malta gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1964 and became a republic in 1974, HP Pavilion dv6-1002tx battery whilst retaining membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. Malta was admitted to the United Nations in 1964 and to the European Union in 2004. Malta is also party to the Schengen Agreement[14] and in 2008 it became part of the eurozone.

Malta has a long Christian legacy and is an Apostolic see. According to the Acts of the Apostles in the Bible,[15] St. Paul was shipwrecked on “Melite”, as the Greeks called the island, and ministered thereHP Pavilion dv6-1003tx battery.[16] Catholicism is the official religion in Malta as declared by the Maltese constitution.[17][18]

Malta is internationally renowned as a tourist destination, with numerous recreational areas and historical monuments, including nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites,[19] most prominently the Megalithic Temples which are some of the oldest free-standing structures in the world. HP Pavilion dv6-1004tx battery

Etymology

The origin of the term Malta is uncertain, and the modern-day variation derives from the Maltese language. The most common etymology is that the word Malta derives from the Greek word ???? (meli), “honey”.[23] The Greeks called the island ?????? (Melit?) meaning “honey-sweet” (which was also the name of a Nereid[24]) HP Pavilion dv6-1005ea battery, possibly due to Malta’s unique production of honey; an endemic species of bee lives on the island, giving it the popular nickname the “land of honey”.[25] The Romans went on to call the island Melita,[26] which is the latinisation of the Greek ??????.[27] Another theory suggests that the word Malta comes from the Phoenician word Maleth meaning “a haven”[28] in reference to Malta’s many bays and covesHP Pavilion dv6-1005ez battery.

[edit]History

Main articles: History of Malta and Timeline of Maltese history

[edit]Prehistory

See also: Megalithic Temples of Malta, Hypogeum of ?al Saflieni, G?ar Dalam, and Heritage Malta

Prehistoric pygmy elephant, discovered in G?ar Dalam

Pottery found by archeologists at Skorba resembles that found in Italy, and suggests that the Maltese islands were first settled in 5200 BC mainly by stone age hunters or farmers who had arrived from the larger island of SicilyHP Pavilion dv6-1005tx battery, possibly the Sicani. The extinction of the dwarf hippos and dwarf elephants has been linked to the earliest arrival of humans on Malta.[29] Prehistoric farming settlements dating to Early Neolithic period were discovered in open areas and also in caves, such as G?ar Dalam. HP Pavilion dv6-1006tx battery

The Sicani were the only tribe known to have inhabited the island at this time[31][32] and are generally regarded as related to the Iberians.[33] The population on Malta grew cereals, raised domestic livestock and, in common with other ancient Mediterranean cultures, worshiped a fertility figure represented in Maltese prehistoric artifacts as exhibiting the large proportions seen in similar statuettesHP Pavilion dv6-1007tx battery, including the Venus of Willendorf.

?gantija megalithic temple complex

The temple complex of Mnajdra

Pottery from the G?ar Dalam phase is similar to pottery found in Agrigento, Sicily. A culture of megalithic temple builders then either supplanted or arose from this early period. During 3500 BC, these people built some of the oldest existing, free-standing structures in the world in the form of the megalithic ?gantija temples on Gozo; other early temples include those at ?a?ar Qim and MnajdraHP Pavilion dv6-1008tx battery.

The temples have a distinctive architecture, typically a complex trefoil design, and were used from 4000–2500 BC. Animal bones and a knife found behind a removable altar stone suggest that temple rituals included animal sacrifice. Tentative information suggests that the sacrifices were made to the goddess of fertilityHP Pavilion dv6-1009el battery, whose statue is now in the National Museum of Archaeology in Valletta.[38] The culture apparently disappeared from the Maltese Islands around 2500 BC. Archeologists speculate that the temple builders fell victim to famine or disease. Others have speculated on the links between this event and Plato’s account of the disappearance of AtlantisHP Pavilion dv6-1009tx battery.

Another interesting archeological feature of the Maltese islands often attributed to these ancient builders, are equidistant uniform grooves dubbed “cart tracks” or “cart ruts” which can be found in several locations throughout the islands with the most prominent being those found in an area of Malta named “Clapham Junction”HP Pavilion dv6-1010ea battery. These may have been caused by wooden-wheeled carts eroding soft limestone.[39][40]

After 2500 BC, the Maltese Islands were depopulated for several decades until the arrival of a new influx of Bronze Age immigrants, a culture that cremated its dead and introduced smaller megalithic structures called dolmens to Malta. HP Pavilion dv6-1010ed battery [41]

[edit]Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans

See also: Magna Graecia, Phoenicia, Ancient Rome, Sicilia (Roman province), and Byzantine Empire

Around 700 BC, the Ancient Greeks settled on Malta, especially around the area where Valletta now stands.[42] A century later, Phoenician traders,[42] who used the islands as a stop on their trade routes from the eastern Mediterranean to CornwallHP Pavilion dv6-1010et battery, joined the natives on the island.[43] The Phoenicians inhabited the area now known as Mdina, and its surrounding town of Rabat, which they called Maleth.[44] The Romans, who also lived in Mdina, referred to it (and the island) as Melita.[26]

Roman mosaic from Rabat, Malta.

After the fall of Phoenicia, in 400 BC the area came under the control of Carthage, a former Phoenician colony.[45] During this time the people on Malta mainly cultivated olives and carobs, and produced textilesHP Pavilion dv6-1010tx battery.[45]

During the First Punic War of 264 BC, tensions led the Maltese people to rebel against Carthage and turn control of their garrison over to the Roman consul Sempronius.[26] Malta remained loyal to Rome during the Second Punic War and the Romans rewarded it with the title Foederata CivitasHP Pavilion dv6-1011tx battery, a designation that meant it was exempt from paying tribute or the rule of Roman law, although at this time it fell within the jurisdiction of the province of Sicily.[26]

By 117 AD, the Maltese Islands were a thriving part of the Roman Empire, being promoted to the status of Municipium under Hadrian.[26] Catacombs in Rabat testify to an early Christian community on the islands, and the Acts of the Apostles recount the shipwreck of St Paul and his ministry on the islandHP Pavilion dv6-1012tx battery.

When the Roman Empire split into Eastern and Western divisions in the 4th century, Malta fell under the control of the Greek speaking Byzantine Empire from 395 to 870,[42] which ruled from Constantinople.[46] Although Malta was under Byzantine rule for four centuries, not much is known from this periodHP Pavilion dv6-1013ea battery. There is evidence that Germanic tribes, including the Goths and Vandals, briefly took control of the islands before the Byzantines launched a counter attack and retook Malta.[46]

[edit]Middle Ages

See also: Byzantine-Arab Wars, Emirate of Sicily, Kingdom of Sicily, and Crown of Aragon

Roger I of Sicily returned Malta to Christian rule.

Flag of the Aragonese Kingdom of Sicily

Malta was involved in the Byzantine-Arab Wars, and the conquest of Malta is closely linked with that of Sicily due to admiral Euphemius’ betrayal of his fellow Byzantines, requesting that the Aghlabid dynasty invade the areaHP Pavilion dv6-1013tx battery.[47] The Arab chronicler and geographer Al-Himyari recounts that in 870 AD, following a violent struggle against the occupying Byzantines, the Arab invaders, first led by Halaf Al-Hadim, and later by Sawada Ibn Muhammed, looted and pillaged the island, destroying the most important buildings, and leaving it practically uninhabited until it was recolonised by the Arabs from Sicily in 1048-49 ADHP Pavilion dv6-1016ez battery. It is uncertain whether this new settlement took place as a consequence of demographic expansion in Sicily, as a result of a higher standard of living in Sicily (in which case the recolonisation may have taken place a few decades earlier), or as a result of civil war which broke out among Arab rulers of Sicily in 1038.[48] The Arabs introduced new irrigation, HP Pavilion dv6-6091nr battery some fruits and cotton and the Siculo-Arabic language was adopted on the island from Sicily: it would eventually evolve into the Maltese language.[49]

The native Christians were allowed freedom of religion but had to pay jizya, a tax for non-Muslims, but were exempt from the tax that Muslims had to pay (Zakaat).[50] The Normans in 1091, as part of their conquest of Sicily, expelled all the Moors from southern Italy, HP Pavilion dv6-6090us battery and their leader Roger I of Sicily was welcomed by the native Christians.[26] The notion that Count Roger I reportedly tore off a portion of his checkered red-and-white banner and presented it to the Maltese forming the basis of the present-day Maltese flag in gratitude for having fought on his behalf, is founded in myth. HP Pavilion dv6-6090sf battery

Ottoman map of Malta, by Piri Reis

The Norman period was productive; Malta became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Sicily which also covered the island of Sicily and the southern half of the Italian Peninsula.[26] The Catholic Church was re-instated as the state religion with Malta under the See of Palermo and some Norman architecture sprung up around Malta especially in its ancient capital MdinaHP Pavilion dv6-6087eg battery.[26] Tancred of Sicily, the last Norman monarch, made Malta a feudal lordship or fief within the kingdom and a Count of Malta instated. As the islands were much desired due to their strategic importance, it was during this time the men of Malta were militarised to fend off capture attempts; the early counts were skilled Genoese corsairsHP Pavilion dv6-6063sf battery.[26]

The kingdom passed on to the House of Hohenstaufen from 1194 until 1266. In fact it was during this period, when Frederick II of Hohenstaufen began to reorganise his Sicilian kingdom, that Western culture and religion began to exert their influence more intenselyHP Pavilion dv6-6054sf battery.[52] Malta was part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation for 72 years. Malta was declared a county and a marquisate, but its trade was totally ruined. For a long time it remained solely a fortified garrison.[53] It was in 1224 under Frederick II that all remaining Muslims (who were not Moors) were expelled from Malta[54] or impelled to convertHP Pavilion dv6-6054ef batteryand the entire Christian male population of Celano in Abruzzo was deported to Malta.[26]

Jean Parisot de la Valette, the founder of Valletta

For a brief period the kingdom passed to the Capetian House of Anjou, however high taxes made the dynasty unpopular in Malta, due in part to Charles of Anjou’s war against the Republic of Genoa and the island of Gozo was sacked in 1275HP Pavilion dv6-6051xx battery.[26] A large revolt on Sicily known as the Sicilian Vespers followed these attacks, that saw the Peninsula separating into the Kingdom of Naples. Malta fell under the rule of the Aragonese in 1282.[57]

Relatives of the kings of Aragon ruled the island until 1409, when it passed to the Crown of Aragon. Early on in the Aragonese reign the sons of the monarchy received the title, “Count of Malta”.HP Pavilion dv6-6051sf battery It was also during this time that much of the local nobility was created. However by 1397 the bearing of the title “Count of Malta” reverted to a feudal basis with two families fighting over the distinction, which caused much distress. This led the king to abolish the title. Dispute over the title returned when the title was reinstated a few years later and the Maltese, led by the local nobility, rose up against Count Gonsalvo MonroyHP Pavilion dv6-6042sf battery.[26] Although they opposed the Count, the Maltese voiced their loyalty to the Sicilian Crown, which so impressed Alfonso IV that he did not punish the people for their rebellion but promised never to grant the title to a third party, instead incorporating it back into the crown. The city of Mdina was given the title of Città Notabile as a result of this sequence of eventsHP Pavilion dv6-6029tx battery.[26]

[edit]Knights of Malta and Napoleon

See also: Sovereign Military Order of Malta, Knights Hospitaller, and Great Siege of Malta

St. Paul’s Cathedral, Mdina built in the Baroque style.

In 1530 Emperor Charles V gave the islands to the Knights Hospitaller under the leadership of Frenchman Philippe de Villiers de L’Isle-Adam, Grand Master of the Order, in perpetual lease. These knights, a military religious order now known as the Knights of Malta, had been driven out of Rhodes by the Ottoman Empire in 1522HP Pavilion dv6-6027tx battery.

In 1551, Barbary corsairs enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island Gozo, about 5,000, deporting them to the Barbary coast.

The knights, led by Frenchman Jean Parisot de la Valette, Grand Master of the Order, withstood a siege by the Ottomans in 1565. The knights, with the help of the Maltese, were victorious, and speaking of the battle Voltaire saidHP Pavilion dv6-6026tx battery, “Nothing is more well known than the siege of Malta.”[58] After the siege they decided to increase Malta’s fortifications, particularly in the inner-harbour area, where the new city of Valletta, named in honour of Valette, was built. They also established watchtowers along the coasts – the Wignacourt, Lascaris and de Redin towers – named after the Grand Masters who ordered the workHP Pavilion dv6-6025tx battery. The Knights’ presence on the island saw the completion of many architectural and cultural projects, including the embellishment of Città Vittoriosa, the construction of new cities including Città Rohan and Città Hompesch and the introduction of new academic and social resourcesHP Pavilion dv6-6024tx battery.

Approximately 11,000 people out of a population of 60,000 died of plague in 1675.[59]

The Beheading of Saint John, by Caravaggio. Oil on canvas, 361 × 520 cm (142.13 in × 204.72 in). Oratory of the Co-Cathedral.

The Knights’ reign ended when Napoleon captured Malta on his way to Egypt during the French Revolutionary Wars in 1798. Over the yearsHP Pavilion dv6-6023tx battery, the power of the Knights declined and the Order became unpopular. This was around the time when the universal values of freedom and liberty were incarnated by the French Revolution. People from both inside the Order and outside appealed to Napoleon Bonaparte to oust the Knights. Napoleon Bonaparte did not hesitateHP Pavilion dv6-6022eg battery. His fleet arrived in 1798, en route to his expedition of Egypt. As a ruse towards the Knights, Napoleon asked for safe harbour to resupply his ships, and then turned his guns against his hosts once safely inside Valletta. Grand Master Hompesch capitulated, and Napoleon entered MaltaHP Pavilion dv6-6013tu battery.

During his very short stay (six days), he accomplished quite a few reforms, notably the creation of a new administration with a Government Commission, the creation of twelve municipalities, the setting up of a public finance administration, the abolition of all feudal rights and privileges, the abolition of slavery and the granting of freedom to all Turkish slavesHP Pavilion dv6-6013cl battery. On the judicial level, a family code was framed and twelve judges were nominated. Public education was organised along principles laid down by Bonaparte himself, providing for primary and secondary education. Fifteen primary schools were founded and the university was replaced by an ’Ecole centrale’ in which there were eight chairs, all very scientific in outlookHP Pavilion dv6-6012tu battery: notably, arithmetic and stereometry, algebra and stereotomy, geometry and astronomy, mechanics and physics, navigation, chemistry, etc. He then sailed for Egypt leaving a substantial garrison in Malta.

The French forces left behind became unpopular with the Maltese, due particularly to the French forces’ hostility towards Catholicism and pilaging of local churches to fund Napoleon’s WarHP Pavilion dv6-6011tu battery. The French financial and religious policies angered the Maltese who rebelled, forcing the French to retreat within the city fortifications. Great Britain, along with the Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of Sicily, sent ammunition and aid to the Maltese and Britain also sent her navy, which blockaded the islandsHP Pavilion dv6-6008tx battery.

General Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois surrendered his French forces in 1800. Maltese leaders presented the island to Sir Alexander Ball, asking that the island become a British Dominion. The Maltese people created a Declaration of Rights in which they agreed to come “under the protection and sovereignty of the King of the free peopleHP Pavilion dv6-6008sa battery, His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland”. The Declaration also stated that “his Majesty has no right to cede these Islands to any power…if he chooses to withdraw his protection, and abandon his sovereignty, the right of electing another sovereign, or of the governing of these Islands, belongs to us, the inhabitants and aborigines alone, and without control.” HP Pavilion dv6-6008eg battery

[edit]British Empire and World War II

Main article: Siege of Malta (World War II)

The heavily bomb-damaged Republic Street in Valletta during the Siege of Malta, 1942.

In 1814, as part of the Treaty of Paris, Malta officially became a part of the British Empire and was used as a shipping way-station and fleet headquartersHP Pavilion dv6-6007tx battery. Malta’s position half-way between the Strait of Gibraltar and the Suez Canal proved to be its main asset during these years and it was considered an important stop on the way to India. This was an important trade route for the British and thus, the Maltese people took great advantage of this alliance as several culinary and botanical products were introduced in MaltaHP Pavilion dv6-6007sg battery; some examples (derived from the National Book of Trade Customs found in the National Library) include the entry of wheat (for bread making) and bacon. In 1919 British troops fired on a rally protesting against new taxes, killing four Maltese men. The event, known as Sette Giugno (Italian for 7 June), is commemorated every year and is one of five National Days. HP Pavilion dv6-6006ea battery

In the early 1930s the British Mediterranean Fleet, which was at that time the main contributor to commerce on the island, moved to Alexandria as an economic measure and to be out of range of Italian bombers.

During World War II, Malta played an important role owing to its proximity to Axis shipping lanesHP Pavilion dv6-6005sg battery. The bravery of the Maltese people during the second Siege of Malta moved King George VI to award the George Cross to Malta on a collective basis on 15 April 1942 “to bear witness to a heroism and devotion that will long be famous in history”. Some historians argue that the award caused Britain to incur disproportionate losses in defending Malta, as British credibility would have suffered if Malta surrendered, as Singapore had. HP Pavilion dv6-6005eg battery [61] A replica of the George Cross now appears in the upper hoist corner of the Flag of Malta. The collective award remained unique until April 1999, when the Royal Ulster Constabulary became the second – and, to date, the only other – recipient of a collective George CrossHP Pavilion dv6-6005ea battery.[62]

[edit]Independence and Republic

Malta joined the European Union in 2004 and signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007.

Malta achieved its independence on 21 September 1964 (Independence Day) after intense negotiations with the United Kingdom, led by Maltese Prime Minister George Borg Olivier. Under its 1964 constitutionHP Pavilion dv6-6004sa battery, Malta initially retained Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of Malta and thus Head of State, with a Governor-General exercising executive authority on her behalf. In 1971, the Malta Labour Party led by Dom Mintoff won the General Elections, resulting in Malta declaring itself a republic on 13 December 1974 (Republic Day) within the Commonwealth, with the President as head of stateHP Pavilion dv6-6003eg battery. A defence agreement signed soon after independence (and re-negotiated in 1972) expired on 31 March 1979.

Malta adopted a policy of neutrality in 1980. In 1989, Malta was the venue of a summit between US President George H.W. Bush and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, their first face-to-face encounter, which signalled the end of the Cold WarHP Pavilion dv6-6002sg battery.

On 16 July 1990, Malta, through its foreign minister, Guido de Marco, applied to join the European Union. After tough negotiations, a referendum was held on 8 March 2003, which resulted in a favourable vote. General Elections held on 12 April 2003, gave a clear mandate to the Prime Minister, Eddie Fenech AdamiHP Pavilion dv6-6002eg battery, to sign the Treaty of accession to the European Union on 16 April 2003 in Athens, Greece. Malta joined the European Union on 1 May 2004.[63] Following the European Council of 21–22 June 2007, Malta joined the Eurozone on 1 January 2008.[64]

[edit]Politics

The Courthouse, Valletta.

Main articles: Politics of Malta and Government of MaltaHP Pavilion dv6-6001sg battery

Malta is a republic,[65] whose parliamentary system and public administration is closely modeled on the Westminster system. Malta had the second highest voter turnout in the world (and the highest for nations without mandatory voting), based on election turnout in national lower house elections from 1960 to 1995HP Pavilion dv6-6001eg battery.[66] The unicameral House of Representatives, (Maltese: Kamra tad-Deputati), is elected by direct universal suffrage through single transferable vote every five years, unless the House is dissolved earlier by the President on advice of the Prime Minister.

The House of Representatives is made up of sixty-nine Members of ParliamentHP Pavilion dv6-6001ea battery. However, where a party wins an absolute majority of votes, but does not have a majority of seats, that party is given additional seats to ensure a parliamentary majority. The Constitution of Malta provides that the President appoint as Prime Minister the member of the House who is best able to command a (governing) majority in the HouseHP Pavilion dv6-6000eg battery.

The President of Malta is appointed for a five-year term by a resolution of the House of Representatives carried by a simple majority. The role of the President as head of state is largely ceremonial. The main political parties are the Nationalist Party, which is a Christian democratic party, and the Labour Party, which is a social democratic partyHP Pavilion dv6-6000 battery . The Nationalist Party is currently at the helm of the government, the Prime Minister being Lawrence Gonzi. The Labour Party, with Joseph Muscat as its leader, is in opposition. There are a number of smaller political parties in Malta that presently have no parliamentary representation.

Until World War II Maltese politics was dominated by the language question fought out by Italophile and Anglophile parties(HP Pavilion dv6-3362sf battery).[67] Post-War politics dealt with constitutional questions on the relations with Britain (first with integration then independence) and, eventually, relations with the European Union.

[edit]Administrative divisions

Main article: Local councils of Malta

Administrative divisions of Malta.

Malta has had a system of local government since 1993, based on the European Charter of Local Self-Government. There are at present 68 local councils (HP Pavilion dv6-3362ef battery) (54 in Malta and 14 in Gozo). Sixteen “hamlets”, which form part of larger councils, have their own Administrative Committee. There are no intermediate levels between local government and national government and the levels of the six districts (five on the main island) and of the three regions (two on the main island) serve primarily statistical purposes(HP Pavilion dv6-3355sf battery).

Each council is made up of a number of councillors (from five to eleven, depending and relative to the population they represent). A Mayor and a Deputy Mayor are elected by and from the Councillors. The Executive Secretary, who is appointed by the council, is the executive, administrative and financial head of the council(HP Pavilion dv6-3355ef battery). Councillors are elected every four years through the single transferable vote. People who are eligible to vote in the election of the Maltese House of Representatives as well as resident citizens of the EU are eligible to vote. Due to the recent reform of the system, no elections will be held before 2012 from when elections will be held every two years for an alternating half of the councils(HP Pavilion dv6-3351sf battery).

Local councils are responsible for the general upkeep and embellishment of the locality (including repairs to non-arterial roads), allocation of local wardens and refuse collection; they also carry out general administrative duties for the central government such as collection of government rents and funds and answer government-related public inquiries(HP Pavilion dv6-3351ef battery).

[edit]Military

Main article: Armed Forces of Malta

The objectives of the Armed Forces of Malta (AFM) are to maintain a military organisation with the primary aim of defending the islands’ integrity according to the defence roles as set by the government in an efficient and cost effective manner. This is achieved by emphasising the maintenance of Malta’s territorial waters and airspace integrity(HP Pavilion dv6-3350sf battery).

The AFM also engages in combating terrorism, fighting against illicit drug trafficking, conducting anti-illegal immigrant and anti-illegal fishing operations, operating Search and rescue (SAR) services, and physical/electronic security/surveillance of sensitive locations. Malta’s Search and Rescue area extends from east of Tunisia to west of Crete covering an area of around 250,000 km2(HP Pavilion dv6-3350ef battery).

As a military organisation, the AFM provides backup support to the Malta Police Force (MPF) and other government departments/agencies in situations as required in an organised, disciplined manner in the event of national emergencies (such as natural disasters) or internal security and bomb disposal(HP Pavilion dv6-3300sg battery).

On another level, the AFM establishes and/or consolidates bilateral co-operation with other countries to reach higher operational effectiveness related to AFM roles.

[edit]Geography

Main article: Geography of Malta

Satellite image of Malta

Malta is an archipelago in the central Mediterranean (in its eastern basin), some 80 km (49.71 mi) south of the Italian island of Sicily across the Malta Channel(HP Pavilion dv6-3300 battery). Only the three largest islands – Malta (Malta), Gozo (G?awdex), and Comino (Kemmuna) – are inhabited. The smaller islands (see below) are uninhabited. The islands of the archipelago lie on the Malta plateau, a shallow shelf formed from the high points of a land bridge between Sicily and North Africa that became isolated as sea levels rose after the last Ice Age(HP Pavilion dv6-3299ea battery),.[68] The archipelago is therefore situated in the zone between the Eurasian and African tectonic plates.,[69][70]

Numerous bays along the indented coastline of the islands provide good harbours. The landscape consists of low hills with terraced fields. The highest point in Malta is Ta’ Dmejrek, at 253 m (830 ft), near Dingli. Although there are some small rivers at times of high rainfall, there are no permanent rivers or lakes on Malta(HP Pavilion dv6-3298ea battery). However, some watercourses have fresh water running all year round at Ba?rija, l-Imta?leb and San Martin, and at Lunzjata Valley in Gozo.

Phytogeographically, Malta belongs to the Liguro-Tyrrhenian province of the Mediterranean Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Malta belongs to the ecoregion of “Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub”(HP Pavilion dv6-3180ea battery).[71]

Maltese landscape, G?adira

The minor islands that form part of the archipelago are uninhabited and include:

Barbaganni Rock (Gozo)

Cominotto, (Kemmunett)

Delimara Island (Marsaxlokk)

Filfla (?urrieq)/(Si??iewi)

Fessej Rock

Fungus Rock, (Il-?ebla tal-?eneral) (Gozo)

G?allis Rock (Naxxar)

?alfa Rock (Gozo) (HP Pavilion dv6-3163eo battery)

Large Blue Lagoon Rocks (Comino)

Islands of St. Paul/Selmunett Island (Mellie?a)

Manoel Island, which connects to the town of G?ira, on the mainland, via a bridge

Mistra Rocks (San Pawl il-Ba?ar)

Ta?-?awl Rock (Gozo)

Qawra Point/Ta` Fraben Island (San Pawl il-Ba?ar)

Small Blue Lagoon Rocks (Comino)

Sala Rock (?abbar)

Xrobb l-G?a?in Rock (Marsaxlokk)

Ta’that il-Mazz Rock(HP Pavilion dv6-3150sa battery)

[edit]Climate

Main article: Climate of Malta

Blue Lagoon Bay between Comino and Cominotto island

Malta has a Subtropical–Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa),[72][73] with mild winters and warm to hot summers. Rain occurs mainly in winter, with summer being generally dry.

The average yearly temperature is 22–23 °C (72–73 °F) during the day and 15 °C (59 °F) at night. In the coldest month – January – the temperature ranges from 12 to 20 °C (54 to 68 °F) (HP Pavilion dv6-3141sa battery) during the day and 7 to 12 °C (45 to 54 °F) at night. In the warmest month – August – the temperature ranges from 28 to 34 °C (82 to 93 °F) during the day and 19 to 24 °C (66 to 75 °F) at night. Generally – summer’s/holiday season lasts to 8 months, starting from around mid-April with temperatures 19–23 °C (66–73 °F) during the day and 13–14 °C (55–57 °F) at night(HP Pavilion dv6-3140sa battery), ending in November with temperatures 17–23 °C (63–73 °F) during the day and 11–20 °C (52–68 °F) at night, although also in the remaining 4 months temperatures sometimes reach 20 °C (68 °F). Amongst all capitals in the continent of Europe, Valletta – the capital of Malta has the warmest winters, with average temperatures of 15–16 °C (59–61 °F) during the day and 9–10 °C (48–50 °F) at night in the period January–February(HP Pavilion dv6-3131sa battery). In March and December average temperatures is around 17 °C (63 °F) during the day and 11 °C (52 °F) at night.[74] Large fluctuations in temperature are rare. Also, Malta is one of the few places in Europe which are “green” all year round.

Average annual temperature of the sea is 20 °C (68 °F) (the highest in the continent of Europe), from 16 °C (61 °F) in January to 26 °C (79 °F) in August(HP Pavilion dv6-3130sa battery). In the entire 6 months – from June to November – the average sea temperature exceeds 21 °C (70 °F)[75]

Sunshine hours total around 3,000 per year (one of the highest results in Europe), from an average above five hours of sunshine per day in December to an average above 12 hours in July.[75] This is about double that of cities in the northern half of Europe, for comparison: London – 1,461(HP Pavilion dv6-3127sa battery);[76] however in winter it has up to several times more sunshine, for comparison: London has 37 hours[76] while Malta has 155 or 164 (depending on the sources) hours of sunshine in December.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Malta

Valletta’s maritime industrial zone

Malta is classified as an advanced economy together with 32 other countries according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) (HP Pavilion dv6-3125sa battery).[78] Until 1800 Malta depended on cotton, tobacco and its shipyards for exports. Once under British control, they came to depend on the dockyard for support of the Royal Navy, especially during the Crimean War of 1854. The military base benefited craftsmen and all those who served the military(HP Pavilion dv6-3123sa battery).

In 1869, the opening of the Suez Canal gave Malta’s economy a great boost, as there was a massive increase in the shipping which entered the port. Ships stopping at Malta’s docks for refuelling helped the Entrepôt trade, which brought additional benefits to the island. (HP Pavilion dv6-3122sa battery)

However, towards the end of the 19th century the economy began declining, and by the 1940s Malta’s economy was in serious crisis. One factor was the longer range of newer merchant ships that required less frequent refuelling stops.

The dolphin show at Mediterraneo Marine Park. Tourism generates a significant part of the GDP of Malta(HP Pavilion dv6-3121sa battery)

Currently, Malta’s major resources are limestone, a favourable geographic location and a productive labour force. Malta produces only about 20% of its food needs, has limited freshwater supplies and has no domestic energy sources. The economy is dependent on foreign trade (serving as a freight trans-shipment point), manufacturing (especially electronics and textiles) and tourism(HP Pavilion dv6-3120sa battery).

Film production is a growing contributor to the Maltese economy, with several big-budget foreign films shooting in Malta each year. The country has increased the exports of many other types of services such as banking and finance.

Malta is part of a monetary union, the Eurozone (dark blue)

The government is investing heavily in education, including college(HP Pavilion dv6-3119sa battery).

In preparation for Malta’s membership in the European Union, which it joined on 1 May 2004, it privatised some state-controlled firms and liberalised markets. For example, the government announced on 8 January 2007 that it is selling its 40% stake in MaltaPost, in order to complete a privatisation process which has been ongoing for the past five years(HP Pavilion dv6-3118sa battery). In 2010, Malta has managed to privatize telecommunications, postal services, shipyards and shipbuilding.

Malta and Tunisia are currently discussing the commercial exploitation of the continental shelf between their countries, particularly for petroleum exploration. These discussions are also undergoing between Malta and Libya for similar arrangements(HP Pavilion dv6-3117sa battery).

Malta does not have a property tax.

According to Eurostat data, Maltese PPS GDP per capita stood at 76 per cent of the EU average in 2008.[79]

[edit]Banking and finance

The two largest commercial banks are Bank of Valletta and HSBC Bank Malta, both of which can trace their origins back to the 19th century.

Malta is one of the world’s financial centers.[80]

The Central Bank of Malta (Bank ?entrali ta’ Malta), has two key areas of responsibility(HP Pavilion dv6-3116tx battery): the formulation and implementation of monetary policy and the promotion of a sound and efficient financial system. It was established by the Central Bank of Malta Act on 17 April 1968. The Maltese government entered ERM II on 4 May 2005, and adopted the euro as the country’s currency on 1 January 2008. (HP Pavilion dv6-3116sa battery)

[edit]Transport

Main article: Transport in Malta

Traffic in Malta moves on the left, as in the UK. Car ownership in Malta is exceedingly high, given the very small size of the islands; it is the fourth highest in the European Union. The number of registered cars in 1990 amounted to 182,254, giving an automobile density of 582 /km2 (1,510 /sq mi). (HP Pavilion dv6-3115tx battery)

Malta has 2,254 kilometres (1,401 mi) of road, 1,972 km (1,225 mi) (87.5%) of which are paved and 282 km (175 mi) were unpaved (December 2003).[83]

Maltese bus.

The main roads of Malta from the southest point to the northest point are these: Triq Bir?ebbu?a in Bir?ebbu?a, G?ar Dalam Road and Tal-Barrani Road in ?ejtun, Santa Lu?ija Avenue in Paola, Aldo Moro Street (Trunk Road) (HP Pavilion dv6-3115sa battery), 13 December Street and ?amrun-Marsa Bypass in Marsa, Regional Road in Santa Venera/Msida/G?ira/San ?wann, St Andrew’s Road in Swieqi/Pembroke, Malta, Coast Road in Ba?ar i?-?ag?aq, Salina Road, Kennedy Drive, St. Paul’s Bypass and Xemxija Hill in San Pawl il-Ba?ar, Mistra Hill, Wettinger Street (Mellie?a Bypass) and Marfa Road in Mellie?a(HP Pavilion dv6-3114sa battery).

Principal highways

Buses (xarabank or karozza tal-linja) are the primary method of public transport. Established in 1905, the service underwent an extensive reform in July 2011. The management structure changed from having self-employed drivers driving their own vehicles to a service being offered by a single company through a public tender (HP Pavilion dv6-3113sa battery) (in Gozo, being considered as a small network, the service was given through direct order).[84] The public tender was won by Arriva Malta, a member of the Arriva group.

The new service includes a day and night services. The fast Crossline services operating at a frequency of 30 minutes. The Crossline service shall connect with Mainline services, which will operate at a frequency of between 10 and 30 minutes(HP Pavilion dv6-3112sa battery). At regional and local levels the feeder lines will serve villages and neighbouring areas at a frequency of 30 minutes. Interchanges are located in Valletta, Mater Dei Hospital, Swieqi, Paola, Marsa, Malta International Airport and Msida.

Between 1883 and 1931, Malta had a railway line that connected Valletta to the army barracks at Mtarfa via Mdina and a number of towns and villages(HP Pavilion dv6-3111sa battery). The railway fell into disuse and eventually closed altogether, following the introduction of electric trams and buses. At the height of the bombing of Malta during World War II, Mussolini announced that his forces had destroyed the railway system but by the time war broke out, the railway had been mothballed for more than nine years(HP Pavilion dv6-3110sa battery).

Grand Harbour

Malta Freeport, one of the largest European ports.

Malta has three large natural harbours on its main island:

The Grand Harbour (or Port il-Kbir), located at the eastern side of the capital city of Valletta, has been a harbour since Roman times. It has several extensive docks and wharves, as well as a cruise liner terminal. A terminal at the Grand Harbour serves ferries that connect Malta to Pozzallo & Catania in Sicily(HP Pavilion dv6-3110ea battery).

Marsamxett Harbour, located on the western side of Valletta, accommodates a number of yacht marinas.

Marsaxlokk Harbour (Malta Freeport), at Bir?ebbu?a on the south-eastern side of Malta, is the islands’ main cargo terminal. Malta Freeport is the 11th busiest container ports in continent of Europe and 46th in the World with a trade volume of 2.3 million TEU’s in 2008. (HP Pavilion dv6-3100sa battery)

There are also two man-made harbours that serve a passenger and car ferry service that connects ?irkewwa Harbour on Malta and M?arr Harbour on Gozo. The ferry makes numerous runs each day.

Malta International Airport

Malta International Airport (Ajruport Internazzjonali ta’ Malta) is the only airport serving the Maltese Islands(HP Pavilion dv6-3100 battery). It is built on the land formerly occupied by the RAF Luqa air base. A heliport is also located there, but the scheduled service to Gozo ceased in 2006. The heliport in Gozo is at Xewkija. Since June 2007, Harbour Air Malta has operated a thrice-daily floatplane service between the sea terminal in Grand Harbour and Mgarr Harbour in Gozo(HP Pavilion dv6-3089la battery).

Two further airfields at Ta’ Qali and ?al Far operated during World War II and into the 1960s but are now closed. Today, Ta’ Qali houses a national park, stadium, the Crafts Village visitor attraction and the Malta Aviation Museum. This museum preserves several aircraft, including Hurricane and Spitfire fighters that defended the island in World War II(HP Pavilion dv6-3088la battery).

An Air Malta plane

The national airline is Air Malta, which is based at Malta International Airport, and which operates services to 36 destinations in Europe and North Africa. The owners of Air Malta are the Government of Malta (98%) and private investors (2%). Air Malta employs 1,547 staff. It has a 25% shareholding in Medavia(HP Pavilion dv6-3085ea battery).

Air Malta has concluded over 191 interline ticketing agreements with other IATA airlines. It also has a codeshare agreement with Qantas covering three routes. In September 2007, Air Malta made two agreements with Abu Dhabi-based Etihad Airways by which Air Malta wet-leased two Airbus aircraft to Etihad Airways for the winter period starting 1 September 2007(HP Pavilion dv6-3077la battery), and provided operational support on another Airbus A320 aircraft which it leased to Etihad Airways.

[edit]Communications

The mobile penetration rate in Malta stood at 101.3% as at the end of 2009.[86] Malta uses the GSM900 & UMTS(3G) mobile phone systems. This is compatible with the rest of the European countries, Australia and also New Zealand(HP Pavilion dv6-3070ea battery).

There are no area codes in Malta, subscribers’ numbers having eight digits. Fixed line telephone numbers have the prefix 2, while mobile telephone numbers have the prefix 7 or 9. When calling Malta from abroad, one must first dial the international access code, then the country code +356 and the subscriber’s number(HP Pavilion dv6-3068ea battery).

[edit]Currency

Main articles: Maltese euro coins and Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Malta)

Maltese euro coins feature the Maltese Cross on €2 and €1 coins, the Maltese Coat of Arms on the €0.50, €0.20 and €0.10 coins, and the Mnajdra Temples on the €0.05, €0.02 and €0.01 coins(HP Pavilion dv6-3067ea battery).[87]

Malta has produced collectors’ coins with face value ranging from 10 to 50 euro. These coins continue an existing national practice of minting of silver and gold commemorative coins. Unlike normal issues, these coins are not legal tender in all the eurozone. For instance, a €10 Maltese commemorative coin cannot be used in any other country(HP Pavilion dv6-3065ea battery).

From 1972 until introduction of the Euro in 2008, the currency was the Maltese Lira, which had replaced the Maltese pound. The pound replaced the Maltese scudo in 1798.

[edit]Tourism

Malta is a popular tourist destination, with 1.2 million tourists every year.[3] Three times more tourists visit than there are residents. Tourism infrastructure has increased dramatically over the years and a number of good-quality hotels are present on the island(HP Pavilion dv6-3060sa battery), although overdevelopment and the destruction of traditional housing is of growing concern. An increasing number of Maltese now travel abroad on holiday.[88]

In recent years, Malta has advertised itself as a medical tourism destination,[89] and a number of health tourism providers are developing the industry. However, no Maltese hospital has undergone independent international healthcare accreditation(HP Pavilion dv6-3057sa battery). Malta is popular with British medical tourists,[90] pointing Maltese hospitals towards seeking UK-sourced accreditation, such as with the Trent Accreditation Scheme. Dual accreditation with the American-oriented Joint Commission is necessary if hospitals in Malta wish to compete with the Far East and Latin America for medical tourists from the United States(HP Pavilion dv6-3056sa battery).

[edit]Science and technology

Malta signed a cooperation agreement with the European Space Agency (ESA) for more-intensive cooperation in ESA projects.[91]

[edit]Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Malta

Valletta, Malta’s historical capital city

Malta conducts a census of population and housing every ten years. The census held in November 2005 managed to count an estimated 96% of the population(HP Pavilion dv6-3055sa battery). A preliminary report was issued in April 2006, and results were weighted to an estimate for 100% of the population.

Native Maltese people make up the majority of the island. However there are minorities, the largest of which are British people, many of whom retired to Malta. The population of Malta as of July 2011 was estimated at 408,000(HP Pavilion dv6-3050sa battery).[92] As of 2005, 17% were aged 14 and under, 68% were within the 15–64 age bracket whilst the remaining 13% were 65 years and over. Malta’s population density of 1,282 per square kilometer (3,322/sq mi) is by far the highest in the EU, and one of the highest in the world. The only census year showing a fall in population was that of 1967, with a 1.7% total decrease, attributable to a substantial number of Maltese residents who emigrated(HP Pavilion dv6-3050eo battery).[7]

The Maltese-resident population for 2004 was estimated to make up 97.0% of the total resident population.[93]

All censuses since 1842 have shown a slight excess of females over males. The 1901 and 1911 censuses came closest to recording a balance. The highest female-to-male ratio was reached in 1957 (1088:1000), and since the ratio has been constantly dropping(HP Pavilion dv6-3048tx battery). The 2005 census showed a 1013:1000 female-to-male ratio. Population growth has slowed down, from +9.5% between the 1985 and 1995 censuses, to +6.9% between the 1995 and 2005 censuses (a yearly average of +0.7%). The birth rate stood at 3860 (a decrease of 21.8% from the 1995 census) and the death rate stood at 3025(HP Pavilion dv6-3048sa battery). Thus, there was a natural population increase of 835 (compared to +888 for 2004, of which over a hundred were foreign residents).[94]

The Valletta Waterfront illuminations

The population’s age composition is similar to the age structure prevalent in the EU. Since 1967 there was observed a trend indicating an ageing population, and is expected to continue in the foreseeable future(HP Pavilion dv6-3047sa battery). Malta’s old-age-dependency-ratio rose from 17.2% in 1995 to 19.8% in 2005, reasonably lower than the EU’s 24.9% average. In fact, 31.5% of the Maltese population is aged under 25 (compared to the EU’s 29.1%); but the 50–64 age group constitutes 20.3% of the population, significantly higher than the EU’s 17.9%(HP Pavilion dv6-3046sa battery). In conclusion, Malta’s old-age-dependency-ratio is expected to continue rising steadily in the coming years.

Maltese legislation recognizes both civil and canonical (ecclesiastical) marriages. Annulments by the ecclesiastical and civil courts are unrelated and are not necessarily mutually endorsed. Malta voted in favor of divorce legislation in a referendum held on 28 May 2011.[95] Abortion in Malta is illegal. A person must be 16 to marry(HP Pavilion dv6-3045sa battery).[96] The number of brides aged under 25 decreased from 1471 in 1997 to 766 in 2005; while the number of grooms under 25 decreased from 823 to 311. There is a constant trend that females are more likely than males to marry young. In 2005 there were 51 brides aged between 16 and 19, compared to 8 grooms(HP Pavilion dv6-3044sa battery).[94]

At the end of 2007 the population of the Maltese Islands stood at 410,290 and is expected to reach 424,028 by 2025. At the moment, females slightly outnumber males, making up 50.3 per cent of the population. The largest proportion of persons – 7.5 per cent – were aged 25–29, while there were 7.3% falling into each of the 45–49 and 55–59 age brackets(HP Pavilion dv6-3042tx battery).[97]

[edit]Languages

Main article: Languages of Malta

See also: #Languages in education

The Maltese language (Maltese: Malti) is the constitutional national language of Malta. Alongside the Maltese Language, English is also an official language of the country and hence the laws of the land are enacted both in Maltese and English. However, the Constitution states that if there is any conflict between the Maltese and the English texts of any law, the Maltese text shall prevail(HP Pavilion dv6-3040sa battery).

Maltese is originally a Semitic language descended from Siculo-Arabic (from southern Italy).[98] The Maltese alphabet consists of 30 letters based on the Latin alphabet, including the diacritically altered letters ?, ? and ?, as well as the letters g?, ?, and ie.

Maltese has a semitic base with substantial borrowing from Sicilian, Italian, a little French, and more recently, and increasingly, English(HP Pavilion dv6-3035sa battery).[99] The language includes different dialects that can vary strongly from one town to another or from one island to another.

The Eurobarometer states that 100% of the population speak Maltese. Also, 88% of the population speak English, 66% speak Italian, and 17% speak French.[100] This widespread knowledge of second languages makes Malta one of the most multi-lingual countries in the European Union(HP Pavilion dv6-3033sa battery). A study collecting public opinion on what language was “preferred” discovered that 86% of the population express a preference for Maltese, 12% for English, and 2% for Italian.[101] Still, Italian television channels from Italy-based broadcasters, such as Mediaset and RAI, reach Malta and remain popular. Italian was in fact an official language of Malta alongside Maltese until 1934, when English replaced it(HP Pavilion dv6-3032tx battery).

[edit]Religion

Main article: Religion in Malta

The façade of St. John’s Co-Cathedral

The Constitution of Malta declares Roman Catholicism as the state religion although entrenched provisions for the freedom of religion are made. Freedom House and the World Factbook report that 98% of the population is Roman Catholic, making the nation one of the most Catholic countries in the world(HP Pavilion dv6-3032sa battery).

There are more than 360 churches in Malta, Gozo, and Comino, or one church for every 1,000 residents. The parish church (Maltese: “il-parro??a”, or “il-knisja parrokjali”) is the architectural and geographic focal point of every Maltese town and village, and its main source of civic pride. This civic pride manifests itself in spectacular fashion during the local village festas(HP Pavilion dv6-3031sa battery), which mark the day of the patron saint of each parish with marching bands, religious processions, special Masses, fireworks (especially petards), and other festivities.

The Mosta Dome known as “Ir-Rotunda”

Malta is an Apostolic See; the Acts of the Apostles tells of how Christians believe St. Paul, on his way from Crete to Rome to face trial, was shipwrecked on the island of “Melite”, which many Bible scholars identify with Malta, an episode dated around AD 60(HP Pavilion dv6-3030tx battery).[16] The Acts of the Apostles says St. Paul spent three months on the island, curing the sick including the father of Publius, the “chief man of the island”. Various traditions are associated with this account. The shipwreck is said to have occurred in the place today known as St Paul’s Bay. Saint Publius is said to have been made Malta’s first bishop and a grotto in Rabat(HP Pavilion dv6-3030sa battery), now known as “St Paul’s Grotto” (and in the vicinity of which evidence of Christian burials and rituals from the 3rd century AD has been found), is amongst the earliest known places of Christian worship on the island.

Further evidence of Christian practices and beliefs during the period of Roman persecution appears in catacombs that lie beneath various sites around Malta(HP Pavilion dv6-3026tx battery), including St Paul’s Catacombs and St Agatha’s Catacombs in Rabat, just outside the walls of Mdina. The latter, in particular, were beautifully frescoed between 1200 and 1480, although marauding Turks defaced many of them in the 1550s. There are also a number of cave churches, including the grotto at Mellie?a, which is a Shrine of the Nativity of Our Lady where, according to legend, St. Luke painted a picture of the Madonna. It has been a place of pilgrimage since medieval times(HP Pavilion dv6-3025sa battery).

The Acts of the Council of Chalcedon record that in 451 AD, a certain Acacius was Bishop of Malta (Melitenus Episcopus). It is also known that in 501 AD, a certain Constantinus, Episcopus Melitenensis, was present at the Fifth Ecumenical Council. In 588 AD, Pope Gregory I deposed Tucillus(HP Pavilion dv6-3020sa battery), Miletinae civitatis episcopus, and the clergy and people of Malta elected his successor Trajan in 599 AD. The last recorded Bishop of Malta before the invasion of the Islands was a Greek by the name of Manas, who was subsequently incarcerated at Palermo.[104]

Maltese historian, Giovanni Francesco Abela, states that following their conversion to Christianity at the hand of St. Paul(HP Pavilion dv6-3015sa battery), the Maltese retained their Christian religion, despite the Fatimid invasion.[105] Abela’s writings describe Malta as a divinely ordained “bulwark of Christian, European civilization against the spread of Mediterranean Islam”.[106] The native Christian community that welcomed Roger I of Sicily[26] was further bolstered by immigration to Malta from Italy, in the 12th and 13th centuries(HP Pavilion dv6-3010sa battery).

?ejtun city centre Parish church

For centuries, the Church in Malta was subordinate to the Diocese of Palermo, except when it was under Charles of Anjou, who appointed bishops for Malta, as did – on rare occasions – the Spanish and later, the Knights. Since 1808 all bishops of Malta have been Maltese. As a result of the Norman and Spanish periods, and the rule of the Knights, Malta became the devout Catholic nation that it is today(HP Pavilion dv6-3011tx battery). It is worth noting that the Office of the Inquisitor of Malta had a very long tenure on the island following its establishment in 1530: the last Inquisitor departed from the Islands in 1798, after the Knights capitulated to the forces of Napoleon Bonaparte. During the period of the Republic of Venice, several Maltese families emigrated to Corfu(HP Pavilion dv6-3006tx battery). Their descendants account for about two-thirds of the community of some 4000 Catholics that now live on that island.

The patron saints of Malta are Saint Paul, Saint Publius, Saint Agatha and Saint George. Although not a patron saint, St George Preca (San ?or? Preca) is greatly revered as the first canonised Maltese saint. Pope Benedict XVI canonised him on 3 June 2007. Also, a number of Maltese individuals are recognised as Blessed, including Maria Adeodata Pisani and Nazju Falzon, with Pope John Paul II having beatified them in 2001(HP Pavilion dv6-3005tx battery).

Various Roman Catholic religious orders are present in Malta, including the Jesuits, Franciscans, Dominicans and Little Sisters of the Poor.

Most congregants of the local Protestant churches are not Maltese; their congregations draw on the many British retirees living in the country and vacationers from many other nations. There are approximately 500 Jehovah’s Witnesses(HP Pavilion dv6-3005sa battery); The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), the Bible Baptist Church, and the Fellowship of Evangelical Churches have about 60 affiliates. There are also some churches of other denominations, such as St. Andrew’s Scots Church in Valletta (a joint Presbyterian and Methodist congregation) and St Paul’s Anglican Cathedral, as well as a Seventh-day Adventist church in Birkirkara(HP Pavilion dv6-3000 battery).

The Jewish population of Malta reached its peak in the Middle Ages under Norman rule. In 1479, Malta and Sicily came under Aragonese rule and the Alhambra Decree of 1492 forced all Jews to leave the country, permitting them to take with them only a few of their belongings(HP Pavilion dm3z-1000 battery). Several dozen Maltese Jews may have converted to Christianity at the time in order to remain in the country. Today, there is one Jewish congregation.

Zen Buddhism and the Bahá’í Faith claim some 40 members. There is one Muslim mosque. A Muslim primary school recently opened; its existence remains a point of some controversy. Of the estimated 3,000 Muslims in Malta, approximately 2,250 are foreigners, approximately 600 are naturalized citizens, and approximately 150 are native-born Maltese(HP Pavilion dm3z battery).[107]

[edit]Migration

[edit]Inbound migration

As an EU member state and a party to the Schengen Agreement, Malta applies the EU’s visa policy. This means that to enter the country:

Nationals of the EU and the European Economic Area (EEA) (Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein) and their special territories and of Switzerland require only a passport or a national identity card. Except for Romanian and Bulgarian nationals(HP Pavilion dm3a-1000 battery), citizens of this category of countries do not require a permit to stay and work legally in Malta.[108]

Nationals of a number of non-EU and non-EEA countries (most countries of the Western Balkans, most countries of the American continent, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Malaysia and Japan) require only a passport and not need a visa to reside in Malta for less than 90 days(HP Pavilion dm3a battery).

Nationals of other countries need a passport and a visa to enter the country, visas being valid for one month.

The estimated net inflow (using data for 2002 to 2004) was of 1,913 persons yearly. Over the last 10 years, Malta accepted back a yearly average of 425 returning emigrants(HP Pavilion dm3-1095es battery).[93]

During 2006, a total of 1,800 illegal immigrants reached Malta making the crossing from the North African coast. Most of them intended to reach mainland Europe and happened to come to Malta due to their sub-standard vessels breaking down or being caught by Maltese and other EU officials.[109][110] In the first half of 2006(HP Pavilion dm3-1031tx battery), 967 irregular immigrants arrived in Malta – almost double the 473 who arrived in the same period in 2005.[111] Many immigrants have perished in the journey across the Mediterranean, with one notable incident being the May 2007 Malta migrant boat disaster.

Around 45% of immigrants landed in Malta have been granted refugee (5%) or protected humanitarian status (40%)(HP Pavilion dm3-1013tx battery). A White Paper suggesting the grant of Maltese citizenship to refugees resident in Malta for over ten years was issued in 2005. Historically Malta gave refuge (and assisted in their resettlement) to eight hundred or so East African Asians who had been expelled from Uganda by Idi Amin and to just under a thousand Iraqis fleeing Saddam Hussein’s regime(HP Pavilion dm3-1090es battery).

Detention costs for the first half of 2006 alone cost € 746,385.[112]

In 2005, Malta sought EU aid in relation to reception of irregular immigrants, repatriation of those denied refugee status, resettlement of refugees into EU countries, and maritime security.[113] In December 2005, the European Council adopted The Global Approach to Migration: Priority Actions focusing on Africa and the Mediterranean(HP Pavilion dm3-1030us battery); but the deployment of said actions has been limited to the western Mediterranean, thus putting further pressure on the central Mediterranean route for irregular immigration of which Malta forms a part.

[edit]Outbound migration

In the 19th century, most emigration from Malta was to North Africa and the Middle East, although rates of return migration to Malta were high(HP Pavilion dm3-1013ax battery).[114] Nonetheless, Maltese communities formed in these regions. By 1900, for example, British consular estimates suggest that there were 15,326 Maltese in Tunisia, and in 1903 it was claimed that 15,000 people of Maltese origin were living in Algeria.[115]

Malta experienced significant emigration as a result of the collapse of a construction boom in 1907 and after World War II(HP Pavilion dm3-1080es battery), when the birth rate increased significantly, but in the 20th century most emigrants went to destinations in the New World, particularly the United States and Australia. After World War II, Malta’s Emigration Department would assist emigrants with the cost of their travel. Between 1948 and 1967, 30 per cent of the population emigrated(HP Pavilion dm3-1030sa battery).[114] Between 1946 and the late 1970s, over 140,000 people left Malta on the assisted passage scheme, with 57.6% migrating to Australia, 22% to the UK, 13% to Canada and 7% to the United States.[116]

Emigration dropped dramatically after the mid-1970s and has since ceased to be a social phenomenon of significance(HP Pavilion dm3-1012tx battery). However, since Malta joined the EU in 2004 expatriate communities emerged in a number of European countries particularly in Belgium and Luxembourg.

[edit]Education

Main article: Education in Malta

See also: List of schools in Malta

Primary schooling has been compulsory since 1946; secondary education up to the age of sixteen was made compulsory in 1971. The state and the Church provide education free of charge(HP Pavilion dm3-1080ef battery), both running a number of schools in Malta and Gozo, including De La Salle College in Cospicua, St. Aloysius’ College in Birkirkara, St. Joseph’s School in Blata l-Bajda and Saint Monica Girls’ School in Mosta. A number of private schools are run in Malta, including San Andrea School and San Anton School in the valley of L-Imselliet (l/o M?arr) (HP Pavilion dm3-1030er battery), St. Martin’s College in Swatar and St. Michael’s School in San ?wann. As of 2008, there are two international schools, Verdala International School and QSI Malta. The state pays a portion of the teachers’ salary in Church schools.[118]

Education in Malta is based on the British model. Primary school lasts six years. At the age of 11 pupils sit for an examination to enter a secondary school, either a church school (the Common Entrance Examination) or a state school(HP Pavilion dm3-1012ax battery). Pupils sit for SEC O-level examinations at the age of 16, with passes obligatory in certain subjects such as mathematics, English and Maltese. Pupils may opt to continue studying at a sixth form college such as Junior College, St Aloysius’ College, De La Salle College, St Edward’s College or else at another post-secondary institution such as MCAST(HP Pavilion dm3-1075eo battery). The sixth form course lasts for two years, at the end of which students sit for the Matriculation examination. Subject to their performance, students may then apply for an undergraduate degree or diploma.

The University of Malta (U.o.M.) provides Tertiary education at diploma, undergraduate and postgraduate level. The adult literacy rate is 99.5% http://www.indexmundi.com/facts/malta/literacy-rate(HP Pavilion dm3-1030ei battery)

Maltese and English are both used to teach students at primary and secondary school level, and both languages are also compulsory subjects. Public schools tend to use both Maltese and English in a balanced manner. Private schools prefer to use English for teaching, as is also the case with most departments of the University of Malta(HP Pavilion dm3-1011tx battery); this has a limiting effect on the capacity and development of the Maltese language.[101] Most university courses are in English.[98]

Of the total number of students studying a first foreign language at secondary level, 51% take Italian whilst 38% take French. Other choices include German, Russian, Spanish, and Arabic. (HP Pavilion dm3-1070es battery)

[edit]Healthcare

Malta has a long history of providing publicly funded health care. The first hospital recorded in the country was already functioning by 1372.[120] Today, Malta has both a public healthcare system, known as the government healthcare service, where healthcare is free at the point of delivery, and a private healthcare system. (HP Pavilion dm3-1030eg battery) Malta has a strong general practitioner-delivered primary care base and the public hospitals provide secondary and tertiary care. The Maltese Ministry of Health advises foreign residents to take out private medical insurance.[123]

Malta was ranked number five in the World Health Organization’s ranking of the world’s health systems,[124] compared to the United States (at 37), Australia (at 32), United Kingdom (at 18) and Canada (at 30) (HP Pavilion dm3-1011tu battery). The healthcare system in Malta closely resembles the British system,[125] as healthcare is free at the point of delivery.

Malta also boasts voluntary organisations such as St John Ambulance, who provide first aid/nursing services during events involving crowds.

Main article: List of hospitals in Malta

The Mater Dei Hospital, Malta’s primary hospital, opened in 2007. It has one of the largest medical buildings in Europe. Other government hospitals in Malta include(HP Pavilion dm3-1070eo battery):

Paul Boffa Hospital, an oncology hospital in Floriana

St Vincent De Paule Hospital, a geriatrics hospital

Gozo General Hospital, the only hospital on Gozo

In addition, Malta has three major private hospitals:

St Philip’s Hospital, with a capacity of 75 beds, is in Santa Venera (currently closed).

St James Capua Hospital (the former Capua Palace Hospital), with 80 beds, is in Sliema. (HP Pavilion dm3-1030ef battery)

St James Hospital has several sites, including a 13 bed unit in Zabbar, as well as a partner hospital in Libya.

St Mark’s Clinic, in Msida, with a capacity of 5 beds, also offers some private hospital services.[125]

Maltese student checking blood pressure

The University of Malta has a medical school, and a Faculty of Health Sciences. The latter offering diploma, (BSc)degree and postgraduate degree courses in a number of health care disciplines(HP Pavilion dm3-1010tx battery).

The Medical Association of Malta represents practitioners of the medical profession. MMSA is a separate body representing Maltese medical students, and is a member of EMSA and IFMSA. MIME, the Maltese Institute for Medical Education, is an institute set up recently to provide CME to doctors in Malta as well as medical students(HP Pavilion dm3-1070ea battery). The Foundation Program followed in the UK has been introduced in Malta in order to stem the ‘brain drain’ of newly graduated doctors to the British Isles. MADS, the Malta Association of Dental Students, is a student association set up to promote the rights of Dental Surgery Students studying within the faculty of Dental Surgery of the University of Malta(HP Pavilion dm3-1030ed battery). It is affiliated with IADS, the International Association of Dental Students.

[edit]Culture

Main article: Culture of Malta

The culture of Malta reflects the various cultures that have come into contact with the Maltese Islands throughout the centuries, including neighbouring Mediterranean cultures, and the cultures of the nations that ruled Malta for long periods of time prior to its independence in 1964(HP Pavilion dm3-1010ew battery).

[edit]Music

Main article: Music of Malta

Manoel Theatre, Europe’s third-oldest working theatre. Now Malta’s National Theatre and home to the Malta Philharmonic Orchestra.

While Maltese music today is largely Western, traditional Maltese music includes what is known as g?ana. This consists of background folk guitar music, while a few people(HP Pavilion dm3-1065eo battery), generally men, take it in turns to argue a point in a sing-song voice. The aim of the lyrics, which are improvised, is to create a friendly yet challenging atmosphere, and it takes a number of years of practice to be able to combine the required artistic qualities with the ability to debate effectively(HP Pavilion dm3-1030ea battery).

[edit]Literature

Main article: Maltese literature

Documented Maltese literature is over 200 years old. However a recently unearthed love ballad testifies to literary activity in the local tongue from the Medieval period. Malta followed a Romantic literary tradition, culminating in the works of Dun Karm, Malta’s National Poet. Subsequent writers like Ruzar Briffa and Karmenu Vassallo tried to estrange themselves from the rigidity of formal themes and versification(HP Pavilion dm3-1010ev battery).

It was late in the 1960s that Maltese literature experienced its most radical transformation amongst poets, prose writers and dramatists. Names of significant poets that stand out from the last quarter of the 20th century include Mario Azzopardi, Victor Fenech, Oliver Friggieri, Joe Friggieri, Charles Flores, Daniel Massa(HP Pavilion dm3-1060es battery), Maria Ganado, Lillian Sciberras and Akille Mizzi. In prose, Frans Sammut, Paul P. Borg and Joe J. Camilleri led the avant-garde meanwhile among the prominent names in theatre are Francis Ebejer, Alfred Sant, Doreen Micallef, Oreste Calleja, Joe Friggieri and Martin Gauci(HP Pavilion dm3-1028tx battery).

The next generation of writers widened the tracks further, especially in prose. Guze’ Stagno, Karl Schembri and Clare Azzopardi are young writers fast establishing themselves while in poetry, significant names include Adrian Grima, Immanuel Mifsud, Norbert Bugeja and Simone Inguanez(HP Pavilion dm3-1010et battery).

Typical architecture built in recent years in Malta.

In literary criticism, Peter Serracino Inglott, Oliver Friggieri and Charles Briffa introduced perceptive historical, philosophical and psycho-social themes into Maltese theory.

Other writers, born in Malta or of Maltese descent, have established careers abroad. These included the novelist Trezza Azzopardi, best-selling children’s author Saviour Pirotta and comic-book artist/journalist Joe Sacco(HP Pavilion dm3-1060er battery).

[edit]Art and architecture

Lower Barrakka Gardens

Maltese architecture has been influenced by many different Mediterranean cultures and British architecture over its history. The first settlers on the island constructed ?gantija, one of the oldest manmade freestanding structure in the world. The Neolithic temple builders 3800–2500 BC endowed the numerous temples of Malta and Gozo with intricate bas relief designs(HP Pavilion dm3-1027tx battery), including spirals evocative of the tree of life and animal portraits, designs painted in red ochre, ceramics, and a vast collection of human form sculptures, particularly the Venus of Malta. These can be viewed at the temples themselves (most notably, the Hypogeum and Tarxien Temples) (HP Pavilion dm3-1010eo battery), and at the National Museum of Archaeology in Valletta. Malta is currently undergoing several large scale building projects including the construction of SmartCity Malta, the M-Towers and Pendergardens, while areas such as the Valletta Waterfront and Tigne Point are receiving renovation(HP Pavilion dm3-1060eo battery).

The Roman period introduced highly decorative mosaic floors, marble colonnades and classical statuary, remnants of which are beautifully preserved and presented in the Roman Domus, a country villa just outside the walls of Mdina. The early Christian frescoes that decorate the catacombs beneath Malta reveal a propensity for eastern(HP Pavilion dm3-1026tx battery), Byzantine tastes. These tastes continued to inform the endeavours of medieval Maltese artists, but they were increasingly influenced by the Romanesque and Southern Gothic movements. Towards the end of the 15th century, Maltese artists, like their counterparts in neighbouring Sicily, came under the influence of the School of Antonello da Messina(HP Pavilion dm3-1010el battery), which introduced Renaissance ideals and concepts to the decorative arts in Malta.[126]

Dimensions   117 cm × 157 cm (46 in × 62 in)

Location          St John’s Co-Cathedral, Valletta

The artistic heritage of Malta blossomed under the Knights of St. John, who brought Italian and Flemish Mannerist painters to decorate their palaces and the churches of these islands, most notably, Matteo Perez d’Aleccio, whose works appear in the Magisterial Palace and in the Conventual Church of St. John in Valletta(HP Pavilion dm3-1060ef battery), and Filippo Paladini, who was active in Malta from 1590 to 1595. For many years, Mannerism continued to inform the tastes and ideals of local Maltese artists.[126]

The arrival in Malta of Caravaggio, who painted at least seven works during his 15-month stay on these islands, further revolutionized local art. Two of Caravaggio’s most notable works, The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist and Saint Jerome Writing(HP Pavilion dm3-1025sa battery), are on display in the Oratory of the Conventual Church of St. John. His legacy is evident in the works of local artists Giulio Cassarino (1582–1637) and Stefano Erardi (1630–1716). However, the Baroque movement that followed was destined to have the most enduring impact on Maltese art and architecture. The glorious vault paintings of the celebrated Calabrese artist, Mattia Preti transformed the severe(HP Pavilion dm3-1010ej battery), Mannerist interior of the Conventual Church St. John into a Baroque masterpiece. Preti spent the last 40 years of his life in Malta, where he created many of his finest works, now on display in the Museum of Fine Arts in Valletta. During this period, local sculptor Melchior Gafà (1639–1667) emerged as one of the top Baroque sculptors of the Roman School(HP Pavilion dm3-1060ea battery).

The Siege of Malta – Flight of the Turks, by Matteo Perez d’Aleccio

During the 17th and 18th century, Neapolitan and Rococo influences emerged in the works of the Italian painters Luca Giordano (1632–1705) and Francesco Solimena (1657–1747), and these developments can be seen in the work of their Maltese contemporaries such as Giovanni Nicola Buhagiar (1698–1752) and Francesco Zahra (1710–1773) (HP Pavilion dm3-1025ez battery). The Rococo movement was greatly enhanced by the relocation to Malta of Antoine de Favray (1706–1798), who assumed the position of court painter to Grand Master Pinto in 1744.

Neo-classicism made some inroads among local Maltese artists in the late 18th century, but this trend was reversed in the early 19th century, as the local Church authorities – perhaps in an effort to strengthen Catholic resolve against the perceived threat of Protestantism during the early days of British rule in Malta(HP Pavilion dm3-1010eg battery) – favoured and avidly promoted the religious themes embraced by the Nazarene movement of artists. Romanticism, tempered by the naturalism introduced to Malta by Giuseppe Calì, informed the “salon” artists of the early 20th century, including Edward and Robert Caruana Dingli(HP Pavilion dm3-1058nr battery).

Parliament established the National School of Art in the 1920s. During the reconstruction period that followed the Second World War, the emergence of the “Modern Art Group”, whose members included Josef Kalleya (1898–1998), George Preca (1909–1984), Anton Inglott (1915–1945), Emvin Cremona (1919–1986), Frank Portelli (b.1922), Antoine Camilleri (b.1922) (HP Pavilion dm3-1024ca battery) and Esprit Barthet (b.1919) greatly enhanced the local art scene.

[edit]Cuisine

Main articles: Maltese cuisine and List of Maltese dishes

Pastizzi, a typical Maltese snack

A variety of Maltese bread, called ftira

Maltese cuisine shows strong Sicilian and English influences as well as influences of Spanish, Maghrebin and Provençal cuisines. A number of regional variations, particularly with regards to Gozo(HP Pavilion dm3-1010ed battery), can be noted as well as seasonal variations associated with the seasonal availability of produce and Christian feasts (such as Lent, Easter and Christmas). Food has been important historically in the development of a national identity in particular the traditional fenkata (i.e. the eating of stewed or fried rabbit) (HP Pavilion dm3-1055eo battery).

[edit]Customs

Main article: Maltese folklore

A 2010 Charities Aid Foundation study found that Maltese were the most generous peoples in the world, with 83% contributing to charity.[127]

Maltese folktales include various stories about mysterious creatures and supernatural events. These were most comprehensively compiled by the scholar (and pioneer in Maltese archeology) Manwel Magri[128] in his core criticism “?rejjef Missirijietna” (“Stories from our Forefathers”)(HP Pavilion dm3-1024ax battery). This collection of material inspired subsequent researchers and academics to gather traditional tales, fables and legends from all over the Archipelago.

Magri’s work also inspired a series of comic books (released by Klabb Kotba Maltin in 1984): the titles included Bin is-Sultan Ji??ewwe? x-Xebba tat-Tron?iet Mewwija and Ir-Rjie?. Many of these stories have been popularly re-written as Children’s literature by authors writing in Maltese(HP Pavilion dm3-1010eb battery), such as Trevor ?ahra. While giants, witches and dragons feature in many of the stories, some contain entirely Maltese creatures like the Kaw kaw, Il-Bellieg?a and L-Im?alla amongst others. The traditional Maltese obsession with maintaining spiritual (or ritual) purity[129] means that many of these creatures have the role of guarding forbidden or restricted areas and attacking individuals who broke the strict codes of conduct that characterized the island’s pre-industrial society(HP Pavilion dm3-1053xx battery).

[edit]Traditions

Traditional Maltese proverbs reveal a cultural preoccupation with childbearing and fertility: “i?-?wie? ming?ajr tarbija ma fihx tgawdija” (a childless marriage cannot be a happy one). This is a belief that Malta shares with many other Mediterranean cultures. In Maltese folktales the local variant of the classic closing formula(HP Pavilion dm3-1023tx battery), “and they all lived happily ever after” is “u g?ammru u tg?ammru, u spi??at” (and they lived together, and they had children together, and the tale is finished).[130]

Rural Malta shares in common with Mediterranean society a number of superstitions regarding fertility, menstruation, and pregnancy, including the avoidance of cemeteries during the months leading up to childbirth, and avoiding the preparation of certain foods during menses(HP Pavilion dm3-1010ea battery). Pregnant women are encouraged to satisfy their cravings for specific foods, out of fear that their unborn child will bear a representational birth mark (Maltese: xewqa, literally “desire” or “craving”). Maltese and Sicilian women also share certain traditions that are believed to predict the sex of an unborn child, such as the cycle of the moon on the anticipated date of birth(HP Pavilion dm3-1050ss battery), whether the baby is carried “high” or “low” during pregnancy, and the movement of a wedding ring, dangled on a string above the abdomen (sideways denoting a girl, back and forth denoting a boy).

Traditionally,, Maltese newborns were baptised as promptly as possible, partly out of fear of limbo should the child die in infancy, and partly because according to Maltese (and Sicilian) (HP Pavilion dm3-1010ax battery) folklore an unbaptised child is not yet a Christian, but “still a Turk”. Traditional Maltese delicacies served at a baptismal feast include biskuttini tal-mag?mudija (almond macaroons covered in white or pink icing), it-torta tal-marmorata (a spicy, heart-shaped tart of chocolate-flavoured almond paste), and a liqueur known as ro?olin, made with rose petals, violets and almonds(HP Pavilion dm3-1050er battery).

On a child’s first birthday, in a tradition that still survives today, Maltese parents would organize a game known as il-qu??ija, where a variety of symbolic objects would be randomly placed around the seated child. These may include a hard-boiled egg, a Bible, crucifix or rosary beads, a book, and so on. Whichever object the child shows most interest in is said to reveal the child’s path and fortunes in adulthood(HP Pavilion dm3-1022tx battery).

Money refers to a rich future while a book expresses intelligence and a possible career as a teacher. Infants who select a pencil or pen will be writers. Choosing bibles or rosary beads refers to a clerical or monastic life. If the child chooses a hard-boiled egg, it will have a long life and many children(HP Pavilion dm3-1009tu battery). More recent additions include calculators (refers to accounting), thread (fashion) and wooden spoons (cooking and a great appetite).

Recreation of a traditional Maltese 18th century wedding

Traditional Maltese weddings featured the bridal party walking in procession beneath an ornate canopy, from the home of the bride’s family to the parish church, with singers trailing behind serenading the bride and groom(HP Pavilion dm3-1050ep battery). The Maltese word for this custom is il-?ilwa. This custom along with many others has long since disappeared from the Islands, in the face of modern practices.

New wives would wear the g?onnella, a traditional item of Maltese clothing. However, it is no longer worn in modern Malta. Today’s couples are married in churches or chapels in the village or town of their choice(HP Pavilion dm3-1022ax battery). The nuptials are usually followed by a lavish wedding reception, often including several hundred guests. Occasionally, couples will try to incorporate elements of the traditional Maltese wedding in their celebration. A resurgent interest in the traditional wedding was evident in May 2007, when thousands of Maltese and tourists attended a traditional Maltese wedding in the style of the 16th century(HP Pavilion dm3-1009ax battery), in the Village of ?urrieq. This included il-?ilwa, which led the bride and groom to a wedding ceremony that took place on the parvis of St. Andrew’s Chapel. The reception that followed featured folklore music (g?ana) and dancing.

[edit]Festivals

Local festivals, similar to those in southern Italy, are commonplace in Malta and Gozo, celebrating weddings, christenings and, most prominently, saints’ days, honouring the patron saint of the local parish(HP Pavilion dm3-1050eo battery). On saints’ days, the festa reaches its apex with a High Mass featuring a sermon on the life and achievements of the patron saint, after which a statue of the religious patron is taken around the local streets in solemn procession, with the faithful following in respectful prayer. The religious atmosphere quickly gives way to several days of revelry, band processions(HP Pavilion dm3-1021tx battery), fireworks, and late night parties. Lija is one villages with a notable firework display.

Carnival (Maltese: il-karnival ta’ Malta) has had an important place on the cultural calendar after Grand Master Piero de Ponte introduced it to the Islands in 1535. It is held during the week leading up to Ash Wednesday, and typically includes masked balls, fancy dress and grotesque mask competitions, lavish late-night parties(HP Pavilion dm3-1008tu battery), a colourful, ticker-tape parade of allegorical floats presided over by King Carnival (Maltese: ir-Re tal-Karnival), marching bands and costumed revellers.

Holy Week (Maltese: il-?img?a Mqaddsa) starts on Palm Sunday (?add il-Palm) and ends on Easter Sunday (?add il-G?id). Numerous religious traditions, most of them inherited from one generation to the next, are part of the paschal celebrations in the Maltese Islands, honouring the death and resurrection of Jesus(HP Pavilion dm3-1050en battery).

Mnarja, or l-Imnarja (pronounced lim-nar-ya) is one of the most important dates on the Maltese cultural calendar. Officially, it is a national festival dedicated to the feast of Saints Peter and St. Paul. In fact, one can trace its roots back to the pagan Roman feast of Luminaria (literally, “the illumination”), when torches and bonfires lit up the early summer night of 29 June(HP Pavilion dm3-1021ax battery).

A national feast since the rule of the Knights, Mnarja is a traditional Maltese festival of food, religion and music. The festivities still commence today with the reading of the “bandu”, an official governmental announcement, which has been read on this day in Malta since the 16th century. Originally, Mnarja was celebrated outside St. Paul’s Grotto, in the north of Malta(HP Pavilion dm3-1008eg battery). However, by 1613 the focus of the festivities had shifted to the Cathedral of St. Paul, in Mdina, and featured torchlight processions, the firing of 100 petards, horseraces, and races for men, boys and slaves. Modern Mnarja festivals take place in and around the woodlands of Buskett, just outside the town of Rabat(HP Pavilion dm3-1050ee battery).

It is said that under the Knights, this was the one day in the year when the Maltese were allowed to hunt and eat wild rabbit, which was otherwise reserved for the hunting pleasures of the Knights. The close connection between Mnarja and rabbit stew (Maltese: “fenkata”) remains strong today(HP Pavilion dm3-1020er battery).

In 1854 British governor William Reid launched an agricultural show at Buskett which is still being held today. The farmers’ exhibition is still a seminal part of the Mnarja festivities today.

Mnarja today is one of the few occasions when participants may hear traditional Maltese “g?ana”. Traditionally, grooms would promise to take their brides to Mnarja during the first of year of marriage(HP Pavilion dm3-1008ax battery). For luck, many of the brides would attend in their wedding gown and veil, although this custom has long since disappeared from the Islands.

In 2009 the first New Year’s Eve street party was organized in Malta, parallel to what other major countries in the world organize. Although the event was not highly advertised and controversial, due to the closing of an arterial street on the day, it is deemed to have been successful and will most likely be organized every year(HP Pavilion dm3-1048la battery).[131]

Isle of MTV is a one day music festival produced and broadcasted on an annual basic by MTV. The festival has been arranged annually in Malta since 2007, with major pop artists performing each year. Since the festival was brought to Malta it has been arranged at the Granaries in Floriana, an open space area with the capacity of roughly 50 000 individuals(HP Pavilion dm3-1020eo battery).[132]

The Malta International Fireworks Festival is an annual festival that has been arranged in the Grand Harbor of Valletta since 2003. The festival offers fireworks displays of a number of Maltese as well as foreign fireworks factories. The festival is usually held in the last week of April every year(HP Pavilion dm3-1007tu battery).

[edit]Holidays

Sports

See also: Rugby union in Malta, Cycling in Malta, and Rugby league in Malta

Association football is the most popular sport in Malta. The national stadium is called Ta’ Qali Stadium. It is generally noted that the population tends to be split half and half with regards to supporting Italy or England in football, due to the cultural affinities of the island(HP Pavilion dm3-1047nr battery).[133] The national football team has won several matches over big opponents that reached the final phases in World Cups, such as Belgium, Hungary, and Greece.

Rugby union is popular in Malta, with the national men’s team currently (May 2010) ranked 49th in the world – the third highest ranking that Malta holds in any international team sport after Table Football and Rugby League(HP Pavilion dm3-1020eg battery).

Rugby league is played in Malta, with the national Men’s Team currently ranked 23rd in the world (August 2011). The National team are known as the Malta Knights, and boast players currently playing in the European Superleague.

Malta also hosts a snooker round, the Malta Cup, which as of 2008 became a non-ranking event. (HP Pavilion dm3-1007ax battery)In 2008 Malta’s Tony Drago was a member of a victorious European Mosconi Cup team, which was played in Portomaso, Malta.[citation needed] Boxer Jeff Fenech is of Maltese descent.[134]

There are over 1200 rock climbing routes in Malta. The island offers a mixture of both trad climbing and sport climbing and also offers a good variety of bouldering and deep water soloing(HP Pavilion dm3-1047cl battery). The geography and small size of the island makes the climbing easily accessible. The sport is growing in popularity with local communities, as well as tourists and visitors. In the last decade the aviation sport of Microlight Flying was introduced to the island by the Island Microlight Club.[135] There are now a total of twenty-two microlight aircraft that operate out of the Malta International Airport(HP Pavilion dm3-1020ef battery).

Bo??i is the Maltese version of the Italian game of bocce, French pétanque and British bowls. Other than certain differences in rules and the ground on which the game is played, one of the most obvious differences between Maltese bo??i and foreign equivalents is the shape of the bowls themselves which tend to be cylindrical rather than spherical in shape. Many small clubs (HP Pavilion dm3-1007au battery) (usually called Klabbs tal-Bo??i in Maltese) can be found in Maltese and Gozitan localities, and are usually well-frequented and are quite active on a local and European level.

[edit]Media

Further information: List of newspapers in Malta

The most widely read and financially the strongest newspapers are published by Allied Newspapers Ltd., mainly The Times (27%) and The Sunday Times (51.6%). Due to bilingualism half of the newspapers are published in English and the other half in Maltese(HP Pavilion dm3-1044nr battery). The Sunday newspaper It-Tor?a (The Torch) published by the Union Press, a subsidiary of the GWU, is the paper with the biggest circulation in the Maltese language. Its sister paper, L-Orizzont, is the Maltese daily with biggest circulation. There is a high number of daily or weekly newspapers, there is one paper for every 28,000 people(HP Pavilion dm3-1020ed battery). Advertising, sales and subsidies are the three main methods of financing newspapers and magazines. However, most of the papers and magazines tied to institutions are subsidised by the same institutions, they depend on advertising or subsidies from their owners.[136]

Further information: Radio stations in Malta

There is a great a presence of the institutions – church, political parties, trade unions – in the print media, though not as in the broadcasting media(HP Pavilion dm3-1006tx battery). Trade Unions are not represented in the broadcasting media, but are in the print media, and only the General Workers Union owns a newspaper. The UHM, the second biggest union, has no newspaper, TV, or radio stations.[136]

Further information: Television in Malta and Digital television in Malta

There are six notorious major nationwide television channels in Malta: TVM, One Television, NET Television, Smash Television, Favourite Channel(HP Pavilion dm3-1040us battery), Calypso Music TV and Education 22 – currently transmitted by analogue terrestrial, free-to-air signals. The state and political parties subsidise most of the funding of these television stations. The Public Broadcasting Services is the state-owned station and is a member of the EBU. Media Link Communications Ltd and One Productions Ltd are affiliated with the Nationalist Party and Labour Party respectively(HP Pavilion dm3-1020ec battery). The rest are privately owned. The Broadcasting Authority supervises all local broadcasting stations and ensures their compliance with legal and licence obligations as well as the preservation of due impartiality; in respect of matters of political or industrial controversy or relating to current public policy(HP Pavilion dm3-1006ax battery); while fairly apportioning broadcasting facilities and time between persons belong to different political parties. The Broadcasting Authority ensures that local broadcasting services consist of public, private and community broadcasts that offer varied and comprehensive programming to cater for all interests and tastes(HP Pavilion dm3-1040ez battery).

Cable, terrestrial and satellite reception are all available, though the cable service is the most diffused. Cable subscriptions reached almost 124,000 in February 2006 reaching about 80% of Maltese households, and a small but increasing number of households own satellite dishes to receive other European television networks such as the BBC from Great Britain and RAI and Mediaset from Italy(HP Pavilion dm3-1020eb battery).